. .  •• 

•    7  •"--  ••••   -;        CT  r  ",  • 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA 


Received 
Accession  No. 


m 


MODERN  ART  EDUCATION: 


ITS  PEACTICAL  AND  ESTHETIC  CHAEACTEE 
EDUCATIONALLY  CONSIDEEED. 


BY 

PROFESSOR  JOSEPH  LANGL, 

OF  VIENNA. 

BEING   PART   OF    THE  AUSTRIAN   OFFICIAL  REPORT    ON 
THE  VIENNA  WORLD'S  FAIR  OF  1873. 

TBANSLATED  WITH  NOTE  BY 

s.   R.   KOE'HLER. 

WITH  AN  INTRODUCTION  BY  CHARLES  B.  STETSON. 


BOSTON: 

L.   PRANG    AND    COMPANY. 
1875. 


3 


AMERICAN    PREFACE. 


AT  last  on  this  side  of  the  Atlantic  an  earnest,  wide-spread 
activity  in  behalf  of  popular  art-education  is  beginning  to  mani- 
fest itself,  not  only  among  educators,  but  among  business  men, 
distinguished  for  the  interest  they  take  in  the  development  of 
American  industry.  As  to  the  character  of  this  activity,  different 
opinions  prevail.  Some  believe  it  is  a  mere  educational  spasm 
which  will  soon  pass  away;  others  that  it  is  only  the  begin- 
ning of  what  we  are  to  see,  — of  a  new  era  in  education.  That 
the  latter  are  right,  that  this  new-born  activity  is  justified  by 
enduring  considerations  of  educational  and  industrial  policy,  a 
survey  of  the  more  conspicuous  facts  will  make  evident  enough. 
This  survey  must  embrace  not  only  the  field  at  home,  but  the 
foreign  as  well. 

AN  AGE   OP   INDUSTRIAL   CONFLICT. 

While  no  one  can  say  that  the  time  approaches  when  Europe 
will  cease  to  u  tremble  under  the  drums  and  tramplings  "  of  mar- 
tial hosts,  yet  it  is  very  clear  that  she  is  now  to  behold  a  long 
age  of  industrial  conflicts  among  the  leading  nations,  with  issues 
quite  as  momentous  as  any  that  were  decided  at  Waterloo  or 
Sedan.  This  age  has  fairly  set  in,  as  a  glance  at  the  past,  by 
way  of  comparison,  will  show. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  present  century,  it  was  the  well-drilled 
soldier  upon  whom  the  different  nations  of  Europe-  relied  for 
defence:  the  well- trained  workman  counted  for  little.  To  be 
sure,  Napoleon,  when  first  consul,  recognizing  the  vital  importance 
of  industrial  education,  took  vigorous  measures  to  promote  it  in 

iii 


iv  AMERICAN  PREFACE. 

France.  But  education  is  a  plant  whose  fruit  does  not  mature  in 
a  year,  nor  all  at  once :  a  half  century  was  required  fully  to  con- 
vince Europe,  by  results,  that  the  workman  should  be  specially 
educated  for  his  work.  Meantime  America  was  developing  the 
public  school  as  a  means  of  popular  culture.  To-day  Europe  is 
successfully  combining  the  two  lessons,  —  industrial  instruction, 
and  general  culture,  of  the  whole  -people.  The  different  govern- 
ments realize  that  henceforth  national  supremacy  must  depend 
more  and  more  upon  industrial  supremacy  ;  and  so  for  this  peaceful 
warfare,  not  the  less  real  because  bloodless,  each  is  arming  itself 
with  the  best  weapons  that  art  and  science  can  furnish.  In  the 
camp  soldiers  are  drilled  no  less  than  of  old ;  but,  in  the  schools, 
children  and  youth  are  trained  with  a  direct  view  to  labor  as  they 
never  "were  trained  before.  Of  all  things,  the  pencil  is  recog- 
nized as  the  most  efficient  all}'  of  the  needle-gun.  While  the  latter 
wins  victories  on  the  field  of  carnage,  the  former  wins  them  in 
great  industrial  tournaments  that  bring  together  the  rival  products 
of  the  whole  working  world.  In  the  one  case  it  is  a  battle  of 
bullets,  in  the  other  a  battle  of  forms ;  and  Europe  has  learned 
that  provision  should  be  made  no  less  against  defeat  in  the  bat- 
tle of  forms  than  in  the  battle  of  bullets. 

While  America,  as  yet,  has  done  almost  nothing  for  the  direct 
education  of  labor,  how  munificent  the  expenditures  made  for  this 
purpose  by  European  governments !  how  broad  their  view,  and 
how  thoughtful  the  adaptation  of  means  to  secure  the  end  desired ! 
They  rely  upon  no  one  thing  ;  but,  beginning  the  work  in  elemen- 
tar}T  schools  where  all  can  be  reached,  they  carry  it  on  through 
evening  schools,  through  Sunday  schools,  through  schools  for 
special  industries,  even  in  towns  of  one  or  two  thousand  inhabit- 
ants, through  schools  of  arts  and  trades  at  frequent  intervals ; 
they  advance  it  by  popular  lectures,  by  local  museums,  and  by 
oft-occurring  exhibitions ;  they  complete  it  in  great  central  tech- 
nical universities  and  art  museums,  with  their  numerous  and 
comprehensive  courses.  Thus  they  provide  for  all  ranks  in  life, 
for  all  the  exigencies  of  art  and  of  industry.  To-day,  in  the 
workshops  and  manufacturing  establishments  of  Europe,  there 
are  millions  of  men  and  women  who  have  been  trained  more  or 
less  efficiently,  during  the  last  twenty  years,  in  art  and  science 


AMERICAN  PREFACE.  V 

applied  to  industry.     Is  not  this  a  noteworthy  change  of  public 
policy  on  the  part  of  European  governments  ? 

Let  us  briefly  consider,  yet  with  something  of  detail,  what  the 
leading  European  nations  have  done  and  are  doing  for  the 
advancement  of  the  art-industrial  education  of  their  people. 

ART-INDUSTRIAL   EDUCATION  IN   ENGLAND. 

For  this  new  conflict  England  is,  with  the  utmost  deliberation, 
thoroughly  arming  herself.  At  first  she  began  with  half  meas- 
ures, which  need  not  here  be  further  described  than  by  saying 
that  she  undertook  to  educate  her  workmen  only  after  they  became 
workmen,  and  gave  little  thought  to  artistic  qualities,  relying 
upon  cheap  production,  good  material,  and  honest  workmanship, 
to  find  a  profitable  market  for  her  manufactures.  She  was  the 
first  to  challenge  the  world  to  a  comparison  of  industrial  products, 
and  in  1851  held  the  first  Universal  Exhibition  at  London.  The 
result  every  one  knows.  As  to  products  involving  taste,  that  which 
adds  so  much  to  market  value,  she  found  herself  far  below  her 
European  rivals,  and  above  the  United  States  alone.  Profiting 
by  her  unexpected  and  humiliating  defeat,  she  at  once  abandoned 
her  old  educational  policy,  which  was  based  mainly  upon  the  let- 
alone  principle,  and  went  vigorous!}'  at  work  in  the  faith  that 
instruction  in  art,  as  applied  to  industry,  could  be  reduced  to 
rational  methods,  could  be  treated  according  to  recognized  educa- 
tional principles,  and  so  need  not  longer  be  left  to  the  fancy  of 
each  individual,  nor  to  the  blind  caprice  of  the  hour.  There  was 
formed  in  the  Privy  Council  a  new  section,  under  the  name  of 
"  Science  and  Art  Department,"  which  has,  for  its  special  object, 
the  popular  dissemination  of  a  knowledge  of  science  and  art 
as  applied  to  industry.  Thus  far  the  department  has  more  espe- 
cially devoted  itself  to  the  advancement  of  drawing  and  the  arts 
of  design.  In  1852  the  South  Kensington  Museum,  which 
receives  an  annual  grant  from  the  government  of  about  five  hun- 
dred thousand  dollars,  was  founded  in  London  at  an  original  cost 
of  some  six  millions  of  dollars.  Besides  giving  general  instruc- 
tion in  fine  and  industrial  art,'  and  sending  out  numerous  travel- 
ling collections  of  art  objects  for  local  service,  this  school  pro- 
vides special  training,  free  of  cost,  to  those  whom  the  government 


vi  AMERICAN  PREFACE. 

selects  as  the  most  promising  candidates  for  art-masters,  and 
who,  upon  finishing  the  course,  are  expected  to  take  charge  of  art- 
schools  in  different  parts  of  the  kingdom.  Thus  the  South  Ken- 
sington Museum  is  the  great  centre  of  art-instruction  for  the 
whole  kingdom  ;  but  it  is  only  the  centre.  The  educational  influ- 
ence of  the  government  is  felt  ever}T  where ;  and,  in  all  important 
industrial  towns,  art-schools  for  instruction  in  drawing,  model- 
ling, and  design  have  also  been  established.  These  schools, 
under  the  supervision  of  the  Science  and  Art  Department,  are 
sustained  in  part  by  the  government,  in  part  b}'  the  local  authori- 
ties, in  part  by  fees  ;  it  being  the  principal  object  to  improve  the 
local  manufactures  by  making  them  more  artistic,  and  to  pro- 
mote machine  and  building  construction.  They  continue  to  in- 
crease from  year  to  year.  According  to  the  official  report  for 
1872,  they  numbered  122, 1  and  were  attended  by  22,845  students  ; 
to  whom  add  the  765  students  who  attended  the  National  Art 
Training  School  at  South  Kensington.  Thus  for  every  210,000 
of  the  population,  there  was  one  well-appointed  art-school,  wholly 
devoted  to  art-instruction,  with  an  average  -of  190  students. 
There  was  also  a  large  number  of  science  schools  in  which  draw- 
ing was  taught,  69  submitting  papers  for  payments  and  prizes. 
Of  night  classes  for  giving  instruction  in  drawing  to  artisans,  and 
to  youth  more  than  twelve  years  old,  there  were  538,  with  an 
attendance  amounting  to  17,256.  Then  it  is  not  to  be  overlooked, 
that  drawing  forms  an  important  part  of  the  instruction  given 
in  elementary  schools,  both  public  and  private.  Thus,  in  the 
"  schools  for  the- poor"  alone,  194,549  children  were  instructed 
in  drawing,  the  same  year,  1872.  And  so  a  more  or  less  efficient 
knowledge  of  art,  as  applied  to  industry,  is  rapidly  spreading 
among  all  the  industrial  classes  of  Great  Britain. 

The  advocates  of  popular  instruction  in  science  as  applied  to 
industry,  seeing  the  great  success  which  has  attended  the  efforts 
in  favor  of  art,  are  strenuously  urging  the  government  to  treat 
science  in  the  same  S3^stematic  and  liberal  manner.  The  vast 
things  they  contemplate  are  minutely  described  by  E.  Twining,  in 
his  book  on  "  Technical  Training,"  and  by  J.  Scott  Russell,  in 
his  book  entitled  "  Systematic  Technical  Education  for  the  Eng- 
1  See  note,  p.  125. 


AMERICAN  PREFACE.  vii 

lish  People."  That  the  advocates  of  popular  scientific  education 
will,  at  an  earl}'  clay,  obtain  what  they  desire,  cannot  well  be 
doubted.1  Then,  with  a  full  development  of  the  public  school 
system  established  in  1870,  the  educational  equipment  of  England 
will  be  complete  and  exceedingly  efficient. 

ART-INDUSTRIAL   EDUCATION   IN   FRANCE. 

First  fruits  of  systematic  English  art-education  soon  began  to 
manifest  themselves.  At  the  Universal  Exhibition,  held  at  Lon- 
don in  1862,  the  advancement  in  English  art-manufactures,  since 
1851,  was  clearly  shown;  and  the  French,  ever  sensitively  alive 
to  their  industrial  interests,  took  alarm.  Such  great  results  so 
soon  achieved,  what  might  not  be  expected  in  the  future !  France 
saw,  indeed,  that  it  was  not  safe  to  rely  upon  prestige,  however 
distinguished :  she  saw  that  to  stand  still  was  to  go  to  the  rear ; 
she  saw  that  to  maintain  her  position,  so  long  indisputably  held, 
at  the  head  in  art-manufactures,  she  must  advance.  The  next 
year  the  Emperor  appointed  a  large  and  able  commission,  which 
was  divided  into  sections,  to  investigate  the  subject  of  technical 
education  in  general,  and  of  art-industrial  education  in  particular. 
In  1865  this  commission  ^submitted  an  elaborate  report,  showing 
what  the  situation  was  at  home  and  in  all  parts  of  Europe.  They 
declared  that  "  drawing,  with  all  its  applications  to  the  different 
industrial  arts,  should  be  considered  as  the  principal  means  to  be 
employed  in  technical  instruction."  They  made  sundry  recom- 
mendations for  the  advancement  of  art-education,  of  drawing  in 
particular,  which  they  believed  should  be  made  more  scientific, 
more  uniform,  and  more  general,  if  France  was  to  retain  her 
industrial  supremacy.  They  would  have  less  of  individual  caprice, 
and  more  teaching  in  harmony  with  sound  and  fixed  educational 
principles.  The  government  proceeded  at  once  to  act  upon  the 
advice  of  the  commission ;  and  the  art-instruction  of  France, 
which  had  so  long  been  the  best  in  Europe  for  industrial  purposes, 
was  in  various  points  reconstructed  and  made  better  still.  Steps 
were  taken  to  provide  better  teachers,  better  appointed  school- 

1  In  1873  the  total  number  of  "science  classes,"  under  the  supervision  of 
the  Science  and  Art  Department,  was  3,810,  in  1,238  schools.  Number  of  stu- 
dents, 44,012.  But  the  work  is  not  systematically  done  yet. 


Vlll  AMERICAN  PREFACE. 

rooms,  better  models  and  drawing-copies.  The  co-operation  of 
publishers  was  secured  ;  for  the}-  soon  saw  that  they  must  furnish 
better  drawing-copies,  otherwise  their  publications  would  be  ex- 
cluded from  the  schools.  To  impart  a  degree  of  uniformity  to 
instruction  everywhere,  especially  in  the  matter  of  style,  the  gov- 
ernment used  its  influence  to.  introduce  into  all  the  leading  art- 
schools  of  the  country  a  set  of  large  drawing-plates,  two  hundred 
in  all,  costing  eight  francs  each.  But  so  various  are  the  schools 
in  France  —  some  public,  some  private,  some  half-and-half,  some 
general,  some  special  —  for  the  education  of  the  people,  that 
the  government  is  obliged  to  resort  to  various  means,  direct  and 
indirect,  to  bring  about  any  general  educational  reform.  One  of 
the  main  objects  of  the  Universal  Exhibition  held  at  Paris,  in 
1867  was  to  stimulate  and  unify  the  art-industrial  education  of 
France.  Since  the  disastrous  war  with  Prussia,  educational  prob- 
lems—  general,  industrial,  and  military  —  have  received  more 
solicitous  consideration  than  ever  before  at  the  hands  of  the 
French  authorities,  both  national  and  local.  Indeed,  with  French 
education  of  all  kinds,  the  present  is  a  reconstructive  period,  —  a 
fact  that  appears  to  be  overlooked  by  those  who  so  vehemently 
urge  us  to  imitate  the  art-instruction  which  has  hitherto  prevailed 
in  France.  However  well  this  art-instruction  may  have  served  its 
purpose  in  the  past,  France  herself,  hy  attempting  many  decided 
changes,  acknowledges  that  it  is  unequal  to  the  present  demands, — 
that,  in  competing  with  thorough  instruction  based  upon  Art- 
science,  her  traditional  methods  cannot  stand. 

ART-INDUSTRIAL    EDUCATION   IN    GERMANY. 

German}''  shows  that  she,  too,  feels  the  impulse  in  favor  of  art- 
industrial  education ;  her  activity,  however,  would  have  doubtless 
been  more  marked  but  for  the  military  exigencies  of  the  last 
fifteen  years.  With  German  unity  secured  tinder  the  leadership 
of  Prussia,  it  is  probable  that  the  development  of  industry  by 
educational  means  will  henceforth  receive  much  greater  attention. 
But,  in  the  past,  art-industrial  education  has  not  been  by  any 
means  neglected.  Not  only  in  all  the  larger  towns  of  the  differ- 
ent states,  as  in  Nuremberg,  Munich,  Berlin,  have  there  long 
been  liberal  provisions  for  the  special  training  of  art- workmen, 


AMERICAN  PREFACE.  ix 

but  there  have  been  similar  provisions,  oftentimes  quite  ample,  in 
many  of  the  smaller  towns,  —  even  in  towns  of  one  or  two  thou- 
sand inhabitants.  Now  comes  a  fresh  impulse,  and  things  old 
are  taking  on  a  new  face.  The  late  war  taught  France  a  valuable 
lesson ;  and  from  France,  defeated  and  prostrate,  yet  promptly 
paying  her  forfeited  milliards,  Prussia  also  learned  a  lesson,  and 
means  to  profit  by  it, — the  lesson  that  art-industrial  education 
contributes  to  the  prosperity  and  grandeur  of  nations.  "  Imme- 
diately after  the  war  with  France,"  as  Prof.  Langl  says,  ktthe 
authorities  of  the  various  industrial  towns  of  Prussia  were  called 
upon,  in  a  circular  issued  by  the  Ministrj-  of  Commerce  and  Indus- 
try, to  follow  the  example  of  France  in  the  organization  of  Drawing 
and  Industrial  Schools;  and  their  attention  was  directed  to  the 
industrial  importance  of  these  schools,  and  to  the  fact  that  they 
form  the  true  basis  of  the  wealth  of  France.  Regulations  in 
regard  to  teachers  of  freehand  drawing  and  modelling  in  the 
industrial  schools  were  prepared  at  the  same  time."  ,As  Germany 
is  divided  into  different  States,  with  different  educational  au- 
thorities more  or  less  independent,  the  reform  in  art-education 
will  not  make  the  same  uniform  progress  everywhere ;  neverthe- 
less, one  may  rest  assured  that  the  reform  from  the  primary 
school  to  the  university,  both  in  its  practical  and  in  its  culture 
aspects,  will  be  speedily  effected,  and  with  the  habitual  German 
thoroughness. 

ART-INDUSTRIAL   EDUCATION   IN   AUSTRIA. 

The  movement  in  favor  of  art-industrial  education  has  not  only 
extended  to  Austria,  but  is  more  marked  than  anywhere  else. 
Indeed,  Austria  is  the  most  thorough  educational  reformer  in 
Europe  to-day.  Since  her  defeat  by  the  Prussian  at  Sadowa,  in 
1866,  she  has  devoted  herself  to  the  education  of  her  people,  fully 
resolved  to  win  back,  by  the  achievements  of  her  educated  indus- 
try, all  she  lost  on  the  field  of  battle.  Her  schools  for  the  educa- 
tion of  the  great  body  of  the  people,  which  were  pronounced  by 
Horace  Mann  to  be  among  the  very  poorest  in  Europe  thirty  years 
ago,  are  to-day  pronounced  by  excellent  educational  authority 
(John  D.  Philbrick)  to  be  the  best,  —  best  in  their  organization, 
best  in  their  course  of  study,  and  best  in  the  character  of  their 


X  AMERICAN  PREFACE. 

instruction.  Nothing  has  been  done  at  hazard  ;  but  the  whole  of 
this  remarkable  educational  reform  is  based  upon  the  soundest 
educational  philosophy,  and  so  must  yield  good  results  for  genera- 
tions to  come.  The  art-industrial  features  are  very  conspicuous, 
as  will  be  seen  upon  reading  the  report  which  follows. 

It  may  justly  be  said  that  the  chief  object  of  the  Universal 
Exhibition,  held  at  Vienna  in  1873,  was  to  stimulate  the  Austri- 
ans,  educationally,  by  showing  them  what  is  done  elsewhere  for 
industrial  education,  and  the  result  as  illustrated  by  industrial 
products.  At  this  exhibition  the  educational  display  was  the 
largest  and  best  ever  seen,  and  so  was  of  special  service  to  edu- 
cators. Already  the  good  influence  of  the  exhibition  on  the 
public  taste  has  begun  to  manifest  itself,  as  the  Austrian  minister 
at  Washington  most  emphatically  testifies  in  a  recent  address.1 

1  At  the  meeting  of  school  superintendents,  recently  held  in  Washington, 
the  Austrian  Minister,  Baron  von  Scharz-Senborn,  was  present,  and  spoke  of 
the  educational  advantages  and  influences  of  expositions:  — 

"You  remember,  gentlemen,  there  -was  an  old  European  general  by  the 
name  of  Montecuculi,  who  said,  that  if  you  are  preparing  for  war,  and  wish 
to  become  victors,  you  must  have  three  necessary  things:  first,  money;  sec- 
ondly, more  money;  thirdly,  much  more  money.  Now,  I  think  every  teacher 
is  a  general;  that  is,  he  is  a  combatant  of  ignorance  and  of  superficiality. 
Now,  I  think  that  the  want  of  knowledge  is  the  root  of  all  evils  that  exist  in 
the  world,  and  that  they  can  only  be  successfully  combated  by  three  things. 
These  three  things  are,  first,  education;  secondly,  more  education;  thirdly, 
much  more  education.  I  think,  too,  that  the  education  of  a  people  must 
begin  in  the  family  circle,  and  that  then  every  man,  every  woman,  every 
village,  municipality,  and  corporation,  and  every  State  government,  and  the 
general  government  itself,  must  aid  and  contribute  to  the  accomplishment 
of  this  vitally  important  object.  .  .  . 

"A  great  German  savant,  Prof.  Virchow,  made  a  very  interesting  and  a 
very  accurate  remark,  which  could  apply  here.  He  said  that  '  nothing  which 
comes  through  your  eyes  into  your  head  ever  goes  out.'  And  so  say  I.  The 
impressions  which  we  obtain  by  the  sense  of  sight  affect  the  brain,  and  change 
our  views,  in  the  most  favorable  manner.  That  was  the  meaning  ;  and  the 
man  who  has  seen  many  things,  who  has  travelled  a  great  deal,  will  have  his 
intellectual  faculties  greatly  improved.  We  observed  in  Austria,  as  well  as 
in  other  parts  of  Europe,  another  striking  effect  of  these  exhibitions.  They 
improve,  in  a  remarkable  way,  the  public  taste.  The  taste  in  former  times  in 
Austria  was  also  a  bad  one.  The  people  had  not  seen  examples  of  tasteful 
and  beautiful  productions:  they  had,  therefore,  no  artistic  judgment.  They 
had  no  museums  and  schools  for  applying  fine  arts  to  industry,  for  improving 
and  correcting  their  taste,  and  for  thus  giving  them  the  right  ideas  of  the 
beautiful.  The  consequence  was,  that  in  their  buildings,  furniture,  and  other 


AMERICAN  PREFACE.  xi 

ART-INDUSTRIAL   EDUCATION   ELSEWHERE. 

But  the  movement  in  favor  of  art-industrial  education  is  by 
no  means  limited  to  England,  France,  Germany,  and  Austria ;  it 
pervades  all  Europe,  —  the  small  states  as  well  as  the  large. 
Even  Russia  forms  no  exception ;  within  the  last  eleven  years 
she  has  established  various  art-schools  modelled  after  the  English, 
and  it  is  said  that  the}^  have  "  greatly  stimulated  and  improved 
the  national  taste."  1  There  is,  indeed,  but  one  opinion  through- 
out Europe  as  to  the  importance  of  art-industrial  education,  and 
as  to  the  wisdom  of  making  it  universal.  In  this  connection  it  is 
well  to  note  that  the  methods  adopted  by  England  for  promoting 
this  education  are  generally  imitated.  Even  France,  so  long  the 
leader  of  the  world  in  matters  of  art,  has  of  late  been  taking  les- 
sons of  her  neighbor  across  the  channel. 

GREAT   RELATIVE   INCREASE    OF   THE   MANUFACTURING   POPULATION. 

This  decided  change  in  the  aspect  of  affairs  is  not  due  to 
caprice,  but  to  universal  and  abiding  influences  which  fully  justify 

things  of  common  life,  no  taste  was  shown.  But  now,  within  a  few  years, 
and  especially  since  the  Universal  Exposition,  and  the  establishment  of  muse- 
ums and  schools,  there  has  been  a  remarkable  improvement. 

"Allow  me  to  say,  gentlemen,  that  a  sincere  friend  should  speak  the  truth; 
and  that  as  a  sincere  friend  of  America,  who  has  the  greatest  sympathy  for 
its  people,  in  whose  country  I  have  learned,  since  my  short  stay  of  six 
months,  a  great  deal,  and  where  I  hope  to  learn  much  more,  —  it  is  my  duty 
to  say  to  them,  in  all  truth  and  candor,  that  their  public  taste  is  in  the  same 
awful  condition  as  was  the  public  taste  in  England  before  their  great  exhibi- 
tion of  1851." 

i  In  1872,  Prof.  T.  C.  Archer,  of  the  Edinburgh  Museum  of  Science  and  Art, 
attended  the  Polytechnic  Exhibition  held  at  Moscow;  and,  from  his  report  to 
the  English  Science  and  Art  Department  of  the  Committee  of  Council  on 
Education,  the  following  paragraph  is  taken:  — 

"  Group  No.  10  may  be  represented  as  a  manufactory  of  ornamental  plate 
in  silver  and  silver  gilt.  Besides  a  splendid  display  in  what  may  be  termed 
the  show-room,  there  are  two  very  roomy  and  well  fitted  up  workshops,  in 
which  the  artisans  may  be  seen  working  in  the  richly  wrought  and  characteris- 
tic Slavonic  designs,  which  are  so  notable  in  the  plate  produced  in  Moscow  by, 
the  great  firms  of  gold  and  silver  smiths.  The  schools  of  art  established  about 
eight  years  ago,  on  the  model  of  those  at  South  Kensington,  have,  under  the- 
direction  of  Mr.  Bowtoffski,  greatly  stimulated  and  improved  the  national 
taste,  and  have  especially  led  it  to  accept  the  pure  Slavonic  models,  of  which 
the  imperial  treasury  in  the  Kremlin  contains  such  an  abundance  of  the  best 
examples." 


Xli  AMERICAN  PREFACE. 

I 

all  that  European  governments  are  doing  for  the  education  of 
artisans.  Science  and  machinery,  to  take  an  illustration,  have 
already  greatly  diminished,  and  will  continue  to  diminish,  the 
comparative  number  of  persons  required  to  supply  those  things, 
in  way  of  food,  raiment,  and  shelter,  which  we  must  have  in  order 
to  exist  at  all.1  What  follows?  The  comparative  number  of 
persons  employed  in  the  production  of  objects  calculated  to  make 
existence  more  tolerable,  and  to  embellish  life,  not  only  has 
greatly  increased  within  the  last  fifty  years,  but  must  continue  to 
increase.  Therefore  it  is  that  everywhere  we  find  the  town  and 
city,  or  artisan  and  commercial,  population  gaining  upon  the  coun- 
try population.  Whether  we  like  it  or  not,-  such  is  the  fact ;  and 
there  is  nothing  to  reverse  this  tendency  of  modern  civilization  ex- 
cept to  prohibit  the  employment  of  science  and  labor-saving  ma- 
chinery in  the  cultivation  of  the  soil.  Make  it  tenfold  more  difficult 
to  produce  the  staple  articles  of  food,  and  you  will  at  once  empty 
the  cities,  putting  an  end  to  manufactures,  to  trade  and  trans- 
portation. But  the  change  is  all  in  the  opposite  direction,  except 
so  far  as  ignorant  tillage  impoverishes  the  soil ;  hence  manufac- 
tures, especially  artistic  manufactures,  together  with  trade  and 

1  "What  is  yet  to  be  accomplished  in  the  way  of  increasing  the  proportion 
of  product  to  manual  labor,  time  alone  can  show;  but  there  is  no  evidence  at 
present  to  indicate  that  we  are  approaching  any  limitation  to  further  progress 
in  this  direction.  A  writer  in  "The  London  Economist,"  in  1873,  evidently 
most  conversant  with  his  subject,  claimed  that  the  industry  of  the  population 
of  Great  Britain  at  that  time,  taking  man  for  man,  was  nearly  twice  as  pro- 
ductive as  it  was  in  1850;  and  I  do  not  think  any  one  can  review  the  industrial 
experience  of  the  United  States,  as  a  whole,  since  18GO,  and  not  feel  satisfied 
that  our  average  gain  to  the  power  of  production  during  that  time,  and  in  spite 
of  the  war,  has  not  been  less  than  from  fifteen  to  twenty  per  cent.  And,  if  this 
statement  should  seem  to  any  to  be  exaggerated,  it  is  well  to  call  to  mind  that 
it  is  mainly  within  the  last  fifteen  years  that  the  very  great  improvements  in 
machinery  adapted  to  agriculture  have  come  into  general  use ;  that  whereas, 
a  few  years  ago,  men  on  the  great  plains  of  the  "West  cut  grain  with  the  cradle 
and  sickle,  toiling  from  early  morn  to  dewy  eve,  in  the  hottest  period  of  the 
year,  the  same  work  may  be  done  now  almost  as  a  matter  of  recreation,  —  the 
director  of  a  mechanical  reaper  entering  the  field  behind  a  pair  of  horses,  with 
gloves  on  his  hands  and  an  timbrella  over  his  head,  and  in  this  style  finishing 
the  work  in  one-tenth  of  the  time  which  twenty  men  would  formerly  have 
required,  and  in  a  manner  innch  more  satisfactory."  —  From  an  address  by 
David  A.  Wells,  before  the  American  Social  Science  Association,  at  Detroit,  May 
11, 1875. 


AMERICAN  PREFACE.  Xlii 

commerce  so  largely  dependent  upon  these,  are  daily  assuming 
greater  relative  importance  in  the  economy  of  the  world.  Surely, 
then,  each  country  should  strive  to  secure  the  largest  possible 
share  of  those  industries  which  are  growing  most  rapidly  in  rela- 
tive importance,  since  her  aggregate  population  and.  wealth  will 
be  thereby  increased,  and  consequently  her  political  influence  in 
the  councils  of  the  world.  Said  Adam  Smith  long  ago,  "  The 
most  opulent  nations  generally  excel  all  their  neighbors  in  agri- 
culture as  well  as  in  manufactures ;  but  they  are  eminently  more 
distinguished  by  their  superiority  in  the  latter  than  in  flie  former." 
Thrifty  manufactures  give  thrifty  agriculture,  at  all  times  and 
everywhere. 

MANUFACTURES   OF   MOST  WORTH. 

This  point  settled,  —  the  great  relative  increase  of  the  manu- 
facturing population,  — let  us  next  consider  the  class  of  manufac- 
tures which  are  the  most  desirable  ;  that  is,  the  class  which  will  give, 
1 ,  the  largest  returns  for  the  time  and  labo.r  bestowed  upon  them, 
and,  2,  the  best  population.  To  designate  them  in  a  bod}',  they 
are  the  manufactures  which  call  for  the  most  skill  and  taste  on 
the  par{  of  the  workman,  and  also  are  usually  the  ones  whose  value 
is  the  least  dependent  on  the  cost  of  the  raw  material.  This  is 
true  the  world  over.  Especially  is  it  well,  in  the  present  connec- 
tion, to  remember  that  there  is  hardly  any  limit  to  the  market  value 
taste  can  confer  upon  an  object  through  beaut}1"  of  form  or  of  dec- 
oration, however  inexpensive  the  material  of  which  the  object  is 
made.  Hence  art-manufactures  are  in  the  highest  degree  desirable. 

Manufactures  involving  skill  and  taste  are  more  desirable  than 
rude  ones,  because,  in  the  first  place,  they  command  a  higher  price 
in  the  market,  if  we  regard  only  the  time  and  labor  bestowed  upon 
them.  Brawn  against  brain  in  any  field  of  labor  never  did  success- 
fully sustain  itself.  What  can  be  done  by  a  machine,  or  by  an 
animal,  that  is,  by  mere  brute  strength,  we  never  esteem  as  we  do 
work  that  can  be  done  only  by  the  mind.  While,  therefore,  the 
rude  laborer  earns  his  dollar,  the  dexterous  laborer  earns  two,  and 
the  skilled  laborer  three.  Yet  it  costs  just  as  much  to  support  in 
health  and  comfort  the  rude  laborer  as  it  does  the  one  who  is  skil- 
ful and  artistic. 


XIV  AMERICAN  PREFACE. 

In  the  second  place,  rude  manufactures  not  only  have  the  pref- 
erence of  the  consumer  against  them,  but  transportation  also  puts 
them  at  a  disadvantage.  Every  one  must  pay  for  getting  whatever 
he  produces  to  market ;  and  the  real  market  in  which  he  sells  is 
the  place  whence  come  the  products  he  receives,  directly  or  indi- 
rectly, in  exchange  for  his  own.  Hence  the  rude  laborer  who 
exchanges  his  products  for  the  less  bulky  products  of  the  skilled, 
artistic  laborer  must  contribute  the  most  towards  effecting  the 
exchange.  By  way  of  illustration,  take  a  Geneva  watch  that  has 
cost  the  producer  two  hundred  and  fifty  dollars  by  reason  of  its 
skilful  workmanship ;  suppose  five  dollars  to  be  the  expense  of 
getting  it  to  market ;  then  transportation  adds  two  per  cent  to 
the  original  cost  of  the  watch.  But  transportation  would  add 
twenty  per  cent  in  the  case  of  a  twenty-five  dollar  watch.  Again  : 
take  a  Turkish  rug  that  has  cost  the  producer  five  hundred  dollars 
by  reason  of  its  beauty,  and  another  rug  of  the  same  weight,  that 
has  cost  the  producer  only  ten  dollars  ;  call  the  expense  of  trans- 
portation five  dollars  for  each  ;  one  per  cent  is  added  to  the  origi- 
nal cost  of  the  rug  in  the  first  instance,  and  fifty  per  cent  in  the 
second.  Bolder  contrasts  might  be  named,  but  these  are  enough 
to  illustrate  the  fact  that  transportation  even  for  great  distances 
can  but  slightly  affect  those  manufactures  which  are  the  most 
desirable.  In  a  word,  it  costs  but  little  to  transport  skill  and 
taste,  but  much,  comparatively,  to  transport  ignorance  and  raw 
material. 

In  1873,  according  to  the  statement  of  the  American  Consul  at 
Basle,  the  watches  sent  from  Switzerland  to  the  United  States 
were  valued  at  $2,520,104  at  the  point  of  shipment.  To  pay  for 
them  it  would  have  taken  in  Illinois,  sa}',  5,000,000  bushels  of  corn. 
Now,  as  each  party  must  pay,  by  deducting  from  the  home  price, 
for  getting  his  own  products  to  market,  at  what  a  disadvantage 
transportation,  in  the  supposed  case,  would  have  placed  the  Illinois 
farmer  !  The  Swiss,  making  no  allowance  for  distance,  would  have 
paid  no  more  for  corn  coming  from  Illinois  than  for  other  corn 
coming  only  from  France.  Little  wonder,  then,  that  the  Illinois 
farmer  converts  his  corn  into  pork  and  lard,  so  far  as  possible, 
before  sending  it  across  the  Atlantic,  that  he  may  put  into  his  own 
pocket  the  difference  in  transportation.  Again :  in  1873  the  United 


AMERfCAN  PREFACE.  XV 

States  imported  embroidered  goods  from  Switzerland  to  the  value 
of  $2,095,234, —  a  call  for  4,000,000  bushels  more  of  Illinois 
corn.  Again :  the  same  year  and  from  the  same  country  we  im- 
ported silk  and  silk  goods  to  the  value  of  $5,224,116,  —  a  call  for 
10,000,000  bushels  more  of  Illinois  corn :  making,  in  round  num- 
bers, 19,000,000  bushels  of  corn  which  would  have  been  neces- 
sary, had  the  payment  been  made  in  corn,  as  supposed,  to  pay  for 
three  kinds  of  skilled,  artistic  manufactures  obtained  from  little 
Switzerland  alone  in  one  year.  Though  without  a  port,  yet 
has  Switzerland  by  means  of  her  skilled,  artistic  manufac- 
tures secured  for  herself  a  commerce  larger,  when  compared  with 
her  population,  than  that  of  any  of  her  continental  neighbors. 
This  astonishing  feat  she  could  not  have  accomplished  with  rude 
manufactures.  Cost  of  transportation  alone  would  have  prevented. 
In  the  third  place,  skilled,  artistic  manufactures  are  more 
desirable  than  rude  manufactures,  since  they  give  a  better  popula- 
tion. The  population  is  better,  because  it  is  more  intelligent, 
intelligence  being  the  prime  condition  of  such  manufactures.  It 
is  better  because  it  is  more  prosperous,  has  more  mone}*  to  spend 
in  the  procurement  of  all  that  is  essential  to  the  comfort  and 
embellishment  of  life.  Churches,  schools,  farmers,  gardeners  —  all 
share  in  the  prosperity  of  the  educated,  thrifty  artisan.  Compare 
the  city  of  Worcester,  Mass.,  full  as  it  is  of  skilled  workmen  of 
man}'  kinds,  with  a  city  whose  manufactures  are  rude,  and  the 
difference  between  the  two  will  arrest  the  attention  of  the  most 
casual  observer. 

COMPETITION   WIDENED   AND    INTENSIFIED. 

Again  :  the  fact  must  not  be  ignored,  that  the  market  of  to-day 
is  quite  a  different  thing  from  the  market  of  fifty  years  ago. 
Competition  has  been  both  widened  and  intensified  b}'  steam- 
carriage  and  telegraphic  communication.  Formerly  the  price  of 
most  products  was  determined  by  the  home  market,  by  local 
competition  :  now  the  price  of  most  products  is  determined  by  the 
market  of  the  world,  and  one's  competitors  are  not  his  neighbors 
alone,  but  they  are  often  found  be}*ond  seas  and  even  on  the 
opposite  side  of  the  planet.  Distance  counts  for  less  and  less  in 
the  transportation  of  all  things.  Indeed,  it  counts  for  next  to 


XVi  AMERICAN  PREFACE. 

nothing  in  the  case  of  those  manufactures  which  embocty  a  large 
degree  of  skill  and  taste,  since  the  cost  of  transporting  them  is  a 
mere  trifle  compared  with  their  value. 

The  question  then  arises,  How  can  foreign  competition  in 
products  embodying  a  large  degree  of  skill  or  taste  be  best  met 
in  the  home  market  ?  B}r  tariffs  ?  certainly  not.  By  cheapening 
labor?  certainly  not;  but  by  properly  educating  labor.  Espe- 
cially is  this  true  in  the  case  of  art-manufactures  whose  market 
value  is  wholly  or  largely  dependent  on  their  beauty.  A  tariff 
may,  indeed,  compel  one  to  refrain  from  purchasing  the  beautiful 
foreign  product,  but  it  will  not  necessarily  make  him  purchase  the 
ugly  object  of  home  manufacture.  The  latter  does  not  meet  the 
demands  of  the  aesthetic  sensibilities,  and  so  is  not  wanted  at  any 
price.  Can  a  man  who  is  thirsty  be  satisfied  with  bread,  however 
good  it  may  be  ?  Can  the  ear  that  longs  for  melody  be  made 
content  with  the  sound  of  a  quartz-mill,  however  abundant  the 
gold  it  stamps  out?  Assuredly  not.  Neither  can  the  desire  for 
beautiful  things  be  satisfied  with  homely  objects,  though  made  of 
the  costliest  materials  and  in  the  most  durable  manner.  There  is, 
indeed,  but  one  effectual  way  for  any  country  to  meet  foreign 
competition  in  its  home  market ;  and  that  is,  to  put  as  much  taste 
and  skill  into  its  own  manufactures  as  the  foreigner  puts  into  his. 
What  is  true  of  the  home  market  is  true,  with  a  little  more  emphasis, 
of  the  great  market  of  the  world. 

A   LESSON   FOR   AMERICANS. 

Now,  to  mention  nothing  more,  can  it  be  doubted  that  the  three 
things  named,  —  1,  the  great  relative  increase  of  the  manufactur- 
ing interests  and  of  the  artisan  classes  ;  2,  the  greater  desirability 
of  manufactures  which  involve  skill  and  taste ;  3,  the  greatly 
widened  and  intensified  competition  of  the  market,  —  can  it  be 
doubted  that  these  three  things  alone  fully  justify  the  efforts  made 
by  European  governments  in  behalf  of  general  art  and  industrial 
education  ?  And  can  it  be  doubted  that  this  country  ought  to  take 
seriously  to  heart  the  example  of  its  great  industrial  rivals  ?  While 
we  guard  the  traditional  "  Monroe  Doctrine  "  so  vigilantly,  warm- 
ing up  to  a  white  heat,  as  we  are  so  apt  to  do,  whenever  a  foreign 
power  shows  an  inclination  to  appropriate  to  itself  a.  foot  of  soil, 


AMERICAN  PREFACE.  xvii 

or  otherwise  to  extend  its  direct  political  influence,  this  side  of  the 
Atlantic,  shall  we  take  no  note  of  that  vast  army  of  workmen 
which  Europe  is  specially  training  for  the  industrial  conflict,  and 
which  we  must  meet  not  only  when  we  venture  abroad,  but  even 
when  we  remain  at  home  behind  tariff  barricades  ? 

Surely  no  one  upon  whom  devolves,  in  any  degree,  the  shaping  of 
public  education  in  this  country,  should  disregard  the  fact  that  it  is 
more  the  market  of  the  world  than  the  local  market  that  deter- 
mines the  price  of  nearly  all  products  whatsoever,  and  that  every 
American  laborer  must  therefore  face  a  double  competition,  — 
individually,  that  of  his  neighbors  ;  with  his  neighbors,  that  of  the' 
world  at  large.  For  both  he  should  be  duly  prepared,  to  wit,  as 
well  prepared  as  his  competitors.  Nothing  should  be  left  to 
chance ;  nothing  to  the  hope  that  divine  interposition  will  save 
him  from  the  penalty  of  ignorance.  He  should  be  taught  not  to 
ignore  his  distant  competitor  because  he  cannot  see  him,  but  to- 
remember,  that  in  these  days  of  telegraphs,  steam-carriage,  and' 
restless  commercial  enterprise,  the  laws  of  traffic  pay  little  heed 
to  mountain  barriers  and  ocean  wastes..  The  earth  has  virtually- 
lost  her  ancient  commercial  dimensions,;  and  there  is  nothing  for 
it  but  to  give  the  workman  a  broad  and  thorough  industrial  educa- 
tion, based  on  science  and  art. 

So  it  is  well,  indeed  absolutely  essential,  for  Americans  carefully 
to  study  what  European  governments  have  done  and  are  doing  for 
the  better  education  of  labor.1  While  many  of  the  political  and 
social  maxims  a  monarchy  might  desire  to  inculcate  through  its 
schools  are  not  adapted  to  a  commonwealth,  yet  in  the  matter  of 
industrial  education  the  thing  that  is  good  for  the  foreigner  is  good 
for  the  American  ;  since  both  have  to  work  with  the  same  materials 
and  implements,  according  to  the  same  natural,  mathematical,  and 

1  Charles  Francis  Adams,  jim.,  chairman  of  the  Massachusetts  Commis- 
sioners to  the  Vienna  Exposition,  says  in  his  report :  "  Take,  for  instance, 
the  great  branch  of  technical  and  artistic  education  which  has  already  been 
referred  to.  It  has  of  late  years  undergone  a  surprising  development  in 
Europe,  the  results  of  which  supply  its  most  interesting  and  instructive  fea- 
ture to  the  recent  Exposition.  It  is  now  exciting  the  greatest  interest  among 
all  thoughtful  men  in  America,  and  promises  infinite  results  in  our  immediate 
future.  -The  Massachusetts  commission  might  well  have  been  organized  with 
a  single  view  to  dealing  thoroughly  with  this  department." 
2 


xviii  AMERICAN  PREFACE. 

artistic  conditions,  and  are  subject  to  the  same  universal  laws  of 
trade.  Hence  the  elaborate  official  Austrian  report  on  drawing 
and  art-education,  here  reprinted  in  full,  becomes  an  exceedingly 
valuable  document  for  the  consideration  of  all  who  take  an  interest 
in  American  public  education.  The  objection  is,  indeed,  some- 
times heard,  that  the  educational  experience  of  Europe  cannot 
apply  in  America  because  the  situation  —  political,  social,  and 
industrial  —  is  so  widely  different  from  the  European.  But  it  is 
far  .from  being  wholly  different.  First,  for  reasons  just  stated, 
industrial  education  needs  to  be  much  the  same  everywhere  ;  and, 
second,  our  manufactures,  which  are  rapidly  growing,  have  already 
reached  ^respectable  proportions.  If  we  are  to  make  the  most  of 
ourselves,  we  must  become  a  vastly  greater  manufacturing  people 
than  we  are  to-day  ;  and  to  this  end  we  must  sustain  our  manu- 
factures, not  by  cheapening  labor,  nor  by  paying  a  premium  on 
ignorance,  but  by  properly  educating  the  laborer. 

THE   NUMBERS   ENGAGED   IN  DIFFERENT   OCCUPATIONS. 

In  this  connection  it  will  be  well  to  consider  the  significance 
of  the  following  figures  from  the  census  report  of  the  United  States 
for  1870.  They  show  the  numbers  engaged  in  the  different  occu- 
pations taken  by  groups. 

Total  population  ,  ,  .  .  «<,i,  ..,*,;*  .  .  38,558,371 
'.Ten  years  of  age  and  over  .  .  .  ,1  ••.•^  >Tr.».'l>..»..  28,228,945 
Engaged  in  all  occupations  .  .  .  ''".'*  ~\  "  .  '.  12,505,923 
Engaged  in  agriculture  ....  V-;':;in -v  •'••;V  5,922,471 
Engaged  in  professional  and  personal  services  .  .  .  2,684,793 

Engaged  in  trade  and  transportation 1,191,238 

Engaged  in  manufacturing,  mechanical,  and  mining  industries  2,707,421 

Observe  that  agriculture  absorbs  somewhat  less  than  one-half 
of  all  who  are  engaged  in  the  different  occupations.  Once  the 
agricultural  population  was  relatively  much  greater  than  now. 
But  not  only  has  it  decreased  ;  it  is  in  the  nature  of  things  that  it 
should  continue  to  decrease  when  compared  with  the  whole  popu- 
lation. Nor  will  this  change  be  confined  to  any  particular  part 
of  the  country.  Just  the  reverse  is  true  of  those  engaged  in 
manufactures.  Already  the  advance  which  manufactures  have 
made  upon  agriculture  in  some  States  is  very  decided ;  and 


AMERICAN  PREFACE.  XIX 

by  and  by  it  will  be  very  decided  in  every  State,  unless  we  choose 
to  rely  upon  the  foreigner,  to  an  altogether  unreasonable  extent, 
for  our  manufactures,  paying  for  them  with  breadstuff's  and  raw 
materials  that  ought  to  be  consumed  by  artisans  of  our  own.  But 
the  country  will  choose  to  do  no  such  thing ;  we  may,  therefore, 
count  upon  a  steady  relative  as  well  as  absolute  increase  of  the 
artisan  population,  and  of  those  who  dwell  in  cities. 

Yet  further,  if  we  consider  the  relations  which  agriculture  and 
manufactures  bear  to  other  occupations,  we  find  that  the  number 
to  whom  manufactures  give  indirect  employment,  as  merchants, 
household  help,  coachmen,  barbers,  mail-carriers,  telegraph-oper- 
ators, is  much  greater  than  the  number  receiving  indirect  employ- 
ment from  agriculture.  This  is  to  be  remembered  in  striking  a 
balance  between  the  two,  in  determining  the  proper  scope  and 
character  of  the  public  education. 

Let  us  now  compare  some  of  the  leading  States  as  to  the  num- 
bers engaged  in  different  occupations.  To  begin  with  Massachu- 
setts, the  census  of  1870  gives  the  following  figures  :  — 

4 

Total  population        ....    -^wfrfuw*  l.iui«tf«;.i  .   1,457,351 
Engaged  in  all  occupations      .        .        .        .        .        .        .          579,844 

Engaged  in  agriculture 72,810 

Engaged  in  professional  and  personal  services     .       .       .          131,291 

Engaged  in  trade 'and  transportation 83,078 

Engaged  in  manufacturing,  mechanical,  and  mining  industries  292,665 

These  figures  show  that  only  one-eighth  of  the  employed  popu- 
lation of  Massachusetts  is  engaged  in  agriculture,  while  over  four- 
eighths  are  engaged  in  manufactures,  mechanical,  and  mining 
industries.  Trade  and  transportation  employ  one-seventh. 

All  know,  at  least  in  outline,  the  economical  history  of  Massa- 
chusetts. Once  the  larger  part  of  her  population  was  engaged  in 
agriculture,  though  neither  the  absolute  numbers  so  engaged,  nor 
the  profits  of  their  labor,  were  ever,  perhaps,  greater  than  to- 
day. Next  in  order  of  importance,  came  trade  and  transporta- 
tion. Within,  however,  the  last  thirty  or  forty  years,  manufac- 
tures have  outgrown  every  thing  else,  their  total  value  in  1870 
amounting  to  $553,912,568.  But  what  of  the  economical  future 
of  Massachusetts?  There  will  be  no  decadence ;  she  will  hold 


XX  AMERICAN  PREFACE. 

her  own  with  the  country  at  large.  Her  manufactures  will  con- 
tinue rapidly  to  increase,  and  with  them  her  population  and 
wealth.  In  general  character  her  manufactures  will  undergo  a 
decided  change :  they  will  embody  more  and  more  of  skill  and 
taste,  and  so  will  find  a  wider  and  wider  market.  Already,  even 
in  point  of  taste,  some  of  the  manufactures  of  Massachusetts  are 
sufficiently  good  to  compete  successfully  with  similar  foreign 
products  in  foreign  markets.  The  recent  steps  taken  by  the  Com- 
monwealth to  promote  popular  art-education  will,  beyond  doubt, 
prove  exceedingly  wise  in  an  economical  view.  It  only  remains 
to  push  vigorously  ahead  in  the  same  direction.1 

If  we  turn  to  the  State  of  New  York,  we  find  the  same  tendency 
in  the  distribution  of  the  population  among  different  employments 
as  in  Massachusetts.  This  appears  by  the  following  figures  from 
the  census  of  1870  :  — 


Total  population 4,382,759 

Engaged  in  all  occupations 1,491,018 

Engaged  in  agriculture 374,323 

Engaged  in  professional  and  personal  services     .       .    *  .          405,339 

Engaged  in  trade  and  transportation 234,581 

Engaged  in  manufacturing,  mechanical,  and  mining  industries  476,775 

It  will  be  seen  that  agriculture  takes  onlj*  one-quarter  of  the 
employed  population,  while  one-third  is  engaged  in  manufacturing, 
mechanical,  and  mining  industries.  Add  to  the  latter  those 
engaged  in  trade  and  transportation,  also  in  professional  and 
personal  service,  and  you  have  five-sevenths  of  the  employed  pop- 
ulation, the  larger  part  of  whom  find  employment,  directly  or 
indirectly,  through  manufactures.  Here  is  a  broad  field  for  indus.- 
trial  education.  In  accordance  with  the  necessities  of  the  case, 

1  "It  must  be  remembered,  that,  if  we  want  quick  and  valuable  results,  our 
outlay  and  exertions  must  be  in  proportion  to  our  desires.  To  give  a  luke- 
warm support  to  the  movement,  and  then,  ten  years  hence,  grumble  because 
we  have  not  effected  as  great  changes  as  other  countries  in  a  like  period  of 
time  have  done,  would  be  but  a  sorry  way  to  bring  about  a  beneficial  result; 
though  it  is  what  is  likely  to  happen,  unless  a  very  strong  interest  is  aroused 
in  the  public  mind  in  behalf  of  the  idea."  — From  Special  Report  on  "  Museums 
of  Art  and  Industry,"  by  Louis  J.  Hinton,  one  of  the  Massachusetts  Commissioners 
to  the  Vienna  Exposition. 


AMERICAN  PREFACE.  xxi 

the  legislature  has  just  enacted  a  law  requiring  industrial  drawing 
to  be  taught  in  all  the  principal  public  schools  of  the  State.1 

Again  :  the  situation  is  much  the  same  in  Pennsylvania,  as  shown 
by  the  following  figures  from  the  census  for  1870  :  — 

Total  population  ,.    -  v ,  ;t  ,> ,;    f ..  },|.,,{  *,-.,-    ,      , .  -'  3,521,951 

Engaged  in  all  occupations       .        .  ..  ;  .        .        .        .        .  1,020,544 

Engaged  in  agriculture      .        . 200,051  . 

Engaged  in  professional  and  personal  services  .  .  £ "  283,000 
Engaged  in  trade  and  transportation  ....  •;.<-  121,253 
Engaged  in  manuf  acturmg,  mechanical,  and  mining  industries  350,240 

Thus  agriculture  absorbs  but  one-quarter  of  the  emplo3*ed 
population,  while  a  little  more  than  one-third  are  engaged  in 
manufacturing,  mechanical,  and  mining  industries.  Even  without 
anticipating  a  further  relative  increase  of  her  artisan  classes,  Penn- 
S3*lvania  has  already  reason  enough  for  making  liberal  provision  for 
the  industrial  education  of  her  people. 

Let  us,  lastly,  consider  the  following  figures  from  the  census  of 
1870,  which  exhibit  the  general  situation  in  Illinois :  — 

Total  population  ^  ^r>  ._.,.,  -,o  ;.>  .,  (<  ,  .  ^.J  yi;.  2,539,891 
Engaged  in  all  occupations  .  .  .  ,«..'•  •  •  742,015 

Engaged  in  agriculture      'J  ,.  r     .'      .  :     .       .       ,       .  370,441 

Engaged  in  professional  and  personal  services          .       .  151,931 

Engaged  in  trade  and  transportation         .-/>',!    >;V  . '«'.    •'*:.   •  80,422 

Engaged  in  manufacturing,  mechanical,  and  mining  industries     133,221 

i  The  following,  introduced  by  Hon.  Warner  Miller  of  Herkimer  County, 
has  become  a  law  of  New  York:  — 

AN  ACT  RELATING    TO    FREE    INSTRUCTION  IN  DRAWING. 

The  People  of  the  State  of  New  York,  represented  in  Senate  and  Assembly,  do 
enact  as  follows: — 

SECTION  1.  In  each  of  the  State  normal  schools  the  course  of  study  shall 
embrace  instruction  in  industrial  or  freehand  drawing. 

SECT.  2.  The  board  of  education  of  each  city  in  this  State  shall  cause  free 
instruction  to  be  given  in  industrial  or  freehand  drawing  in  at  least  one 
department  of  the  schools  under  their  charge. 

SECT.  3.  The  board  of  education  of  each  union  free  school  district,  and  in 
each  school  district  incorporated  by  special  act  of  the  legislature,  shall  cause 
free  instruction  to  be  given  in  industrial  or  freehand  drawing  in  the  schools 
under  their  charge,  unless  excused  therefrom  by  the  superintendent  of  public 
instruction. 

SECT.  4.  This  act  shall  take  effect  October  first,  eighteen  hundred  and 
seventy-five. 


t 
xxii  AMERICAN  PREFACE. 

Observe  that  in  this,  the  greatest  of  the  agricultural  States,  a 
trifle  more  than  one-half  of  the  employed  population  is  engaged  in 
agriculture,  while  a  trifle  less  than  one-third  is  engaged  in  trade 
and  transportation,  and  in  manufacturing,  mechanical,  and  mining 
industries.  To-day  agriculture  holds  the  same  commanding  position 
in  Illinois  that  it  once  held  in  Pennsylvania  and  New  York.  But 
this  will  not  alwaj's  be  ;  manufactures  will  gradually  come  to  the 
front  in  Illinois  as  elsewhere.  Why,  indeed,  should  not  the  larger 
part  of  the  surplus  food  produced  by  Illinois  farmers  be  consumed 
in  Illinois,  as  it  might.be  if  she  had  a  large  manufacturing  popula- 
tion? Were  the  manufactures  of  Illinois  as  well  developed,  in 
proportion  to  her  agriculture,  as  the}'  are  in  Massachusetts,  her 
population  would  be  to-day  10,000,000.  Would  that  be  the  worse 
for  the  farmers?  Or,  take  a  European  comparison  which  has 
already  been  used-.  Switzerland,  with  15,223  square  miles  of 
territory,  much  of  it  waste,  had,  in  1870,  a  population  of  2,669,- 
147,  or  somewhat  more  than  that  of  Illinois  with  55,405  square 
miles  of  territory.  Though  she  is  without  a  port,  the  commerce  of 
Switzerland,  as  previously  stated,  has  long  been,  in  proportion  to 
her  population,  larger  than  that  of  any  of  her  continental  neigh- 
bors, mainly  because  of  the  great  skill  and  taste  of  her  workmen 
industrially  educated.  If  Switzerland,  in  the  heart  of  Europe  and 
with  enemies  all  about  her,  can  make  such  a  record,  what  may 
not  Illinois,  in  the  heart  of  America  and  surrounded  only  by 
friends,  accomplish,  if  she  will? 

Skill  and  taste  are  the  product  of  education  in  the  main :  they 
are  cosmopolitan,  can  make  themselves  as  much  at  home  in  one 
place  as  in  another  ;  the}'  certainly  do  not  prefer  a  sterile  to  a  fertile 
soil,  —  Switzerland  to  Illinois.  Among  all  the  kinds  of  manufac- 
tures which  involve  skill  and  taste,  and  do  not  require  water-power 
for  their  cheap  production,  there  undoubtedly  are  many  kinds  well 
adapted  to  the  climate  and  other  local  conditions  of  Illinois. 
Whether  they  are  ever  successfully  prosecuted  in  Illinois,  will 
depend  largely  on  whether  the  State  does  what  has  proved  so 
efficient  in  Switzerland  and  in  so  many  other  parts  of  the  world,  — 
whether  the  State  gives  her  people  a  suitable  education  for  the 
development  of  their  skill  and  taste. 


AMERICAN  PREFACE.  XXlll 


EXTENT   AND    GENERAL  CHARACTER   OP   AMERICAN   MANUFACTURES. 

The  following  figures  show  the  extent  of  American  manufactures 
during  the  year  which  closed  May  30,  1870,  and  their  general 
character,  as  disclosed  lyy  a  comparison  of  the  value  of  the  man- 
ufactures with  the  value  of  the  raw  materials  consumed :  — 

Value  of  raw  materials  consumed        .        .       .  ,.:  .  -.-.  $2,488,427,242 

Value  of  products        t  \  „     .  ,,   .    r. '-/'   •.      ,«,/..•  4,232,325,442 

Value  added  by  manufacture  '     I  ''   V  ''  .'    •;-'•';  )(J  1,743,898,200 

Wages  paid       .  ui<-;.  xj«i  Jt»;(    i   •  •<*  :i  .,  •»;.       .  775,584,343 

Hands  employed     .     .  :*  ,)}•  f :  .'• »  T  I  •  :  )J;*.-KJ  .jo^o  2,053,996 

The  value  of  our  manufactures  in  1810  was  $198,613,471.  As 
the  population  at  that  time  was  7,239,881,  the  manufactures 
amounted  to  $27  for  each  person.  In  1870  the  amount  was  $109, 
or  four  times  greater  than  in  1810.  Some  allowance  must  be  made 
for  the  depreciation  of  currency  ;  but  allowance  must  also  be  made 
for  the  cheapening  of  production,  which  has  resulted  from  a  better 
control  of  the  forces  of  nature,  and  from  the  use  of  labor-saving 
machinery.  So  it  is  quite  safe  to  assume  that  the  quantity  of 
manufactures  has  been  increased  fourfold  for  each  person  within 
the  last  sixty  j*ears.  According  to  the  census  of  1870,  to  make 
another  comparison,  the  value  of  all  our  farm  products,  including 
betterments  and  additions  to  stock,  was  $2,447,538,658,  —  only 
forty  per  cent  more  than  the  value  added  to  raw  material  by  the 
processes  of  manufacture.  Thus  it  will  be  seen  that  American 
manufactures,  though  as  yet  in  their  infancy,  have  nevertheless 
attained  to  very  respectable  proportions. 

It  is,  however,  to  be  specially  noted  and  remembered  that  the 
value  added  by  the  processes  of  manufacture  is  not  so  great  by 
$744,529,042  as  the  value  of  the  raw  materials  consumed.  This 
indicates  that  the  manufactures,  as  a  whole,  are  exceedingly  rude, 
that  they  embody  very  little  of  the  skill  and  taste  which  by  increas- 
ing the  quality  of  products  add  to  their  market  value. 

Here  let  us  briefly  consider  the  nature  of  skill  and  taste.  Skill 
may  be  exercised  for  two  purposes  :  1 ,  to  accelerate  production  ; 
2,  to  improve  the  quality  of  objects.  Whatever  enhances  the 
quality  of  objects  tends  to  enhance  their  market  value  ;  whatever 


xxiv  AMERICAN  PREFACE. 

accelerates  production  tends  to  lower  prices.  The  skill  which 
devises  labor-saving  machinery,  and  then  tends  it,  must  of  necessity 
diminish  the  value  added  to  raw  material  by  manufacture  ;  and,  the 
greater  the  expenditure  of  skill  in  this  direction,  the  less  it  will 
manifest  itself  in  the  price  of  products.  It  is  not  enough,  however, 
to  exercise  skill  to  cheapen  production  ;  it  should  also  be  exercised 
to  improve  the  quality  of  things  made,  and  thus  to  advance  prices. 
But  it  is  taste  especially  which  can  contribute  to  the  value  of 
innumerable  manufactures ;  which  alwa}rs  tends  to  enhance,  never 
to  diminish,  prices.  True,  it  does  not  necessarily  require  more 
labor  to  make  an  object  beautiful  than  to  make  it  homely ;  but  the 
beautiful  object  always  commands  the  higher  price,  and  so,  while 
the  consumer  is  better  pleased,  the  producer  is  better  paid.  That 
is  the  way  of  it. 

Now,  Americans  have  especially  distinguished  themselves  in 
devising  labor-saving  machinery,  and  have  been  abundantly 
rewarded  for  thus  cheapening  production.  Hence  it  does  not  follow 
that  but  little  skill  has  been  expended  on  American  manufactures, 
because  the  value  added  by  manufacture  is  so  much  less  than  the 
value  of  raw  material  consumed.  There  has  been  little  lack  of 
skill  that  increases  quantity.  But  what  is  said  of  Swiss,  English, 
French  manufactures,  as  a  whole,  should  also  be  said  of  American 
manufactures,  namely,  that  their  price  is  advancing1  in  spite  of 
cheapened  production  ;  and  this  will  be  said  of  them  when  we  give 
as  much  thought  to  improving  their  quality  as  we  have  given  to% 
augmenting  their  quantity.  Though  there  is  ample  room  for  further 
cheapening  production,  yet  we  shall  find  it  quite  as  much  to  our 
advantage  to  improve  the  quality  of  our  products. 

OUR  EXPORTS  AND  IMPORTS  COMPARED. 

If  we  now  turn  to  our  foreign  trade,  and  compare  our  exports 
with  our  imports,  we  find  that,  to  speak  in  general  terms,  we 
export  breadstuffs  and  raw  materials,  and  import  skill  and  taste. 

1  It  is  estimated  that  in  England  alone  the  force  obtained  from  coal,  and 
applied  to  mechanical  purposes,  does  the  work  of  one  hundred  millions  of  men, 
without  any  off-setting  demand  for  food  and  clothing.  And  yet  the  prices 
of  English  products,  as  a  whole,  are  said  to  advance,  because  they  are  so 
greatly  improved  in  quality. 


AMERICAN  PREFACE.  XXV 

The  National  Bureau  of  Statistics  gives  the  following  figures  for 
the  year  ending  June  30,  1874  :  — 

TOTALS. 

Domestic  Exports  (currency  value)  1 1   .»...•       •       •        $693,039,054 
F6reign  Imports  (gold  value)     .        .        .        .'"'   .A'V*     595,861,248 

,  BREADSTUFFS. 

Exports        ,\,tl  ^1«.  '    (.\  ^.-'.A   V«'^V     *        *       $161,307,864 
Imports       ••;'".  -1'i;)^*.  i?K?Jr.   i ''-'."•    >P  V:;;-    .        .  13,042,771 

In  the  case  of  breadstuffs, —  that  is,  of  wheat,  corn,  barley,  and 
the  like,  —  skill  can  do  little  more  than  cheapen  production  and 
lower  prices.  There  is  no  opportunity  for  the  exercise  of  taste. 

PROVISIONS. 

Exports       fTUiO   0.*   '*:»,:uur,  i,^i§^i  *M.?  rtf<ni  .        $78,348,225 
Imports  .        .  3  .  c.  .?,SJs  *0  Gt>h<roiUVwVTi>>  tfki.        4»904»824 

To  these  exports,  pork  contributed  $5,808,712  ;  lard,  $19,308,- 
019  ;  bacon  and  hams,  33,384,108.  These  three  articles,  having  a 
value  of  $58,600,839,  represented  so  much  condensed  corn.  With- 
out this  reduction  of  bulk,  the  corn  would  not  have  found  so  profit- 
able a  market ;  perhaps  it  would  have  found  no  market  at  all. 

TALLOW. 

Exports        /jiw!    -Jwo    <&•    J.<:A.  •  .»->;i.i   li'ii't   £U: ''«•'••    $8,135,320 
Imports  .       .  •••.(j'/j  *h;(  .r(>   *ol'^r    »"•'    *       *  none. 

RAW  COTTON. 

Exports       I,5iiu/«!!iv?5  IO^Y/  >o  'f>i5(ii7;*  l*-W.     •'        *       $211,223,580 
Imports          .        .  '  . '  .      '  .        .       .        .        .        .        .  704,784 

Skill  can  cheapen  the  production  of  raw  cotton,  and  bring  down 
its  price,  but  it  can  do  little  or  nothing  towards  improving  its 
quality.  There  is  no  room  for  the  exercise  of  taste. 

COTTON  MANUFACTURES. 

Exports        f!)iiJ  Ja.U   ..<rml>n  Jritujxn  <w  (*  I-**:    .       $3,091,332 
Imports         j(,i}    ,jfsj   ...r    |lfw    %>','fa   j^.    lj/fefio-5  u^   *  28»183»878 

In  other  words,  with  the  amplest  supply  of  raw  material  at 
home,  we  not  only  fail  to  supply  foreign  markets  with  our  manu- 
factures, but  we  do  not  even  supply  our  home  market.  Manu- 
factures of  cotton  present  an  opportunity  by  the  application  of 
skill  and  taste  to  enhance  prices.  But  how  little  of  skill  and 


XX Vi  AMERICAN  PREFACE. 

taste  we  sent  abroad !  On  the  other  hand,  England  exported  cot- 
ton goods  in  1872  to  the  value  of  $384,787,944.  Her  total  cot- 
ton manufactures  amounted  in  1870  to  $447,096,000,  while  the 
value  of  the  raw  material  consumed  was  but  $202,296,000  ;  and  so 
the  sum  of  $244,800,000  was  added  by  the  process  of  manufacture. 
For  the  same  year  the  total  value  of  cotton  manufactures  in  the 
United  States  was  $177,489,739,  while  the  value  of  materials  con- 
sumed was  $111,736,936,'  of  which  about  $100,000,000  can  be 
set;  down  to  raw  cotton.  Note,  that,  while  the  value  added  by 
manufacture  in  England  is  considerably  more  than  the  value  of 
the  raw  cotton  consumed,  it  is  in  the  United  States  considerably 
less  ;  and  this,  too,  though  raw  cotton  costs  more  in  England  than 
it  does  here,  and  though  the  same  quality  of  labor  is  cheaper  than 
with  us.  How,  then,  does  England  manage  to  carry  the  price  of 
her  cotton  goods  above  the  price  of  ours  ?  By  putting  more  skill 
and  taste  into  them. 

WOOL  MANUFACTURES. 

Exports       >  Uv*fi*fc:!.vj  ff«.- $     124,099 

Imports       jQf  rj/jfjl  i<*'f  M        •        •        •       ••'•"f'<*w  rf.-fc      46,731,745 

Here  is  a  better  opportunity  than  in  the  case  of  cotton  manufac- 
tures for  improving  the  quality  of  the  goods  by  skill  and  taste, 
and  thus  advancing  their  price.  And  so  our  imports  increase 
accordingly,  with  a  diminution  of  the  exports.  Total  value  of 
wool  manufactures  in  the  United  States,  according  to  the  census 
of  1870,  was  $155,405,358 ;  value  of  wool  consumed  about  $80,- 
000,000. 

SILK  MANUFACTURES. 

Exports       .;  ... <,••>,, /,i    .  V;^*-"  »  •'!»;;•    f  \,    •       •        '         none. 
Imports  ,v.     j  ^  /o^V.  r,*   , ,,.     ^    '.,, ,  .'  f'     •         $24,349,037 

These  manufactures  afford  an  opportunity  for  a  large  display  of 
skill  and  taste ;  and  so  we  export  none.  But  little  Switzerland, 
according  to  our  consul  at  Basle,  sent  to  the  United  States  in 
1874  silk  and  silk  goods  to  the  value  of  $4,842,384.  The  value 
of  silk  fabrics  produced  by  France  in  1870  was  $200,000,000. 
The  census  for  1870  puts  the  total  value  of  all  textile  manufac- 
tures in  the  United  States  at  $380,913,815,  not  quite  double  the 
silk  manufactures  of  France. 


AMERICAN  PREFACE.  xxvii 

FANCY  GOODS. 

Exports .        .        .        $    302.497 

Imports  VWH-WH  fkrhfy  «Q$|Ji     4,518,987 

MANUFACTURES    OF   FLAX. 

Exports none. 

Imports  $17,473,7(53 

The  quality,  and  hence  the  market  value,  of  these  manufactures 
depends  largely  on  the  skill  and  taste  exercised  in  their  production  ; 
and  so  we  export  none.  But  the  value  of  linen  manufactures 
exported  by  England  in  1872  amounted  to  $52,592,448. 

LEATHER. 

Exports         J)»3.e.gH:}  fc&*&   0*0 -  )*-H  >I    >  SJT  ••**•••   •        $3,940,426 
Imports  .        .  ,  ,{»~mA(,V}«  ,>vA  i  wifu'fft  oMf  rtto       6,138,528 

GLASS  AND  GLASS  WARE. 

Exports  $   631,801 

Imports  6,257,978 

EARTHEN,   STONE,   AND  CHINA  WARE. 

Exports  ...     .        .       ,.•".."*.        .       $     59,304 

imports          '*'    .    *?  '-"'V ;f .  »£;7j*rii-iyti  ,.*»s^i  i>(?»   4^82,579 

IRON  AND  IRON  MANUFACTURES. 

Exports  $13,181,411 

Imports         p!|i£%'W'W 33,703,455 

Of  the  imports  more  than  $27,000,000  consisted  of  iron  manu- 
factures, according  to  the  Bureau  of  Statistics. 

AGRICULTURAL   IMPLEMENTS. 

Exports         .;';>,:;;•<.:';.        .        .        .    •*  s^l  J'.'.JJ.r    •        $3,090,135 
Imports  none. 

ILLUMINATING  MINERAL   OIL. 

Exports  '.....      $37,561,513 

Imports  :»'•*•        •  1,327 

MUSICAL  INSTRUMENTS. 

Exports  $550,327 

Imports 870,348 

PAINTINGS,  ENGRAVINGS,  STATUARY,  PHOTOGRAPHS,  CHROMO-LITHOGRAPHS. 

Exports  $  161,503 

Imports  .        .       .        .        .        .        .      "-f"'1.t'l*f!t»rr        1,437,287 

GOLD  AND  SILVER. 

Exports  $59,699,632 

Imports  28,456,906 


XXviii  AMERICAN  PREFACE. 

Thus  it  is  clear  from  the  figures  given  that  we  exchange  rude 
products  for  those  which  embody  skill  and  taste.  This  is  doubly 
to  our  disadvantage.  Compared  with  our  rivals,  we  lose,  first,  in 
production,  because  skilled,  artistic  labor  is  always  best  paid  ;  then 
we  lose  in  transportation,  because  our  products  are  so  bulky.  The 
nearer  the  market,  the  better  at  all  times :  especially  is  this  true 
in  the  case  of  rude  products,  natural  or  manufactured,  the  cost  of 
transporting  which  is  great  when  compared  with  their  value. 
Hence  it  is  that  manufactures,  by  providing  a  convenient  market, 
always  contribute  so  much  towards  the  prosperity  of  the  farmers 
in  the  immediate  neighborhood.  The  better  the  manufactures,  the 
better  for  the  farmers :  1 ,  Because  those  engaged  in  them  earn 
more,  and  so  are  able  to  purchase  more  of  the  farmers  ;  2,  Because, 
the  more  valuable  the  commodities  into  which  the  farmers  can  con- 
vert their  own,  the  less  it  will  cost  them  in  the  way  of  transporta- 
tion, indirectly,  to  secure  from  a  distance  such  commodities  as  are 
not  produced  at  home. 

And  so  the  great  industrial  problem  to  be  solved  by  the 
American  statesman  and  educator  is  this:  HoV  can  we  make 
the  most  of  our  natural  resources,  which,  though  varied  and  vast, 
are  but  the  basis  of  wealth?  How  can  we  manage  to  consume 
in  home  industries  the  larger  part  of  our  raw  material,  adding 
to  its  value  by  the  magic  touch  of  taste  and  skill  ?  Instead 
of  exporting  raw  material  in  the  main,  how  shall  we  become  an 
exporter  in  the  main  of  commodities  the  greater  part  of  whose 
value  has  been  added  by  the  processes  of  manufacture?  Until 
such  is  the  case  we  shall  not  attain  to  the  highest  and  most  endur- 
ing prosperity;  we  shall  not  occupy  our  true  place  among  the 
nations  of  the  earth.  The  problem  cannot  be  solved  by  protection, 
of  which  we  hear  so  much,  certainly  not  by  protection  alone  ; 
nor  yet  by  free  trade,  whose  special  function  is  to  distribute  natural 
advantages,  not  acquired  ones  like  skill  and  taste  :  it  can  only  be 
solved  by  education  undertaken  for  definite  industrial  purposes, 
and  directed  by  reason  and  experience.  And  this  education,  in 
its  elements,  must  aim  to  develop  the  skill  and  taste  of  the  whole 
people,1  not  merely  of  selected  classes.  Even  if  it  were  in  the 

1  In  his  report  on  education,  John  W.  Hoyt,  of  Wisconsin,  U.  S.  Commis- 
sioner to  the  Paris  Exhibition,  1807,  says,  after  quite  a  full  review  of  the  whole 


AMERICAN  PREFACE.  xxix 

least  desirable,  which  it  is  not,  to  give  to  the  early  training  of 
each  one  a  specific  direction,  it  could  not  be  accomplished  in  any 
rational,  satisfactory  manner  ;  for  no  man  has  sufficient  prescience 
to  forecast  the  future  of  any  child,  to  tell  just  how  his  natural 
powers  will  develop,  just  what  will  be  the  great  controlling  cir- 
cumstances and  requirements  of  his  manhood.  All  early  public 
education  should  aim,  1,  at  the  greatest  good  of  the  greatest  num- 
ber;  and,  2,  at  the  discovery,  though  not  at  the  special  train- 
ing, of  special  capacities.  To  such  popular  training  of  skill  and 
taste  as  indicated  two  objections  will  be  made :  1 ,  that  it  will 
give  more  educated  labor  than  is  required ;  2,  that  it  will  produce 
a  distaste  for  manual  labor.  As  to  the  validity  of  the  first  objec- 
tion we  can  best  judge  after  we  have  once  fairly  made  the  trial. 
For  the  present  it  is  perfectl}-  safe  to  assume  that  there  is  enough 
stupidity  inherent  in  human  nature,  which  cannot  possibly  be 
overcome  by  any  amount  of  education,  to  supply  all  the  ignorant 
labor  which  may  be  required  in  rude  employments.  As  to  the 
validity  of  the  second  objection,  the  truth  of  the  matter  is,  that 
such  an  education  will  cause  the  workman  who  has  natural  capacity 
enough  to  acquire  it,  to  take  greater  pride  and  delight  in  his 
work.1  This  thing  alone  is  quite  sufficient  to  justify  much  effort 
to  secure  it ;  so  think  foreign  governments.2 


European  field,  "Both  (economical  and  resthetic  reasons)  demand,  with  a 
voice  that  should  he  heard  and  heeded,  the  prompt  adoption  of  measures  for 
providing  instruction  in  the  elementary  principles  of  drawing  and  modelling 
in  all  our  public  schools,  and  in  the  industrial  applications  of  art  in  all  our 
schools  of  applied  science." 

1  Louis  J.  Hinton,  who  attended  the  Vienna  Exhibition,  1873,  says,  in  his 
special  report  to  the  State  of  Massachusetts  on  "Museums  of  Art  and  Indus- 
try," "  One  fact  is  proven,  standing  firm  as  a  rock,  by  the  united  testimony 
of  all  the  European  savants  who  claim  to  speak  with  authority  on  this  sub- 
ject, —  that  is,  that,  if  any  improvement  is  to  take  place  in  the  art-industry  of 
the  country,  it  must  come  from  the  better  education  of  the  people  in  art,  and 
this  must  commence  with  popular  instruction  in  freehand  drawing.    It  is  also 
shown  that  such  knowledge  as  is  imbibed  at  the  drawing  school,  the  technical 
educational  class,  art-gallery,  and  the  art-industry  museum,  educates  men  to 
feel  more  interest  in  their  work  ;  that  new  inethods  of  doing  old-time  work 
suggest  themselves  to  the  man  who  has  been  taught  in  the  principles  upou 
which  the  success  of  his  work  depends." 

2  The  following  extract  from  a  circular  dated  June  7,  1870,  and  addressed 
to  her  Majesty's  diplomatic  and  consular  agents  iu  all  parts  of  the  world, 


AMERICAN  PREFACE. 


THE    GREAT   WEALTH    OF   FRANCE. 

It  is  just  here,  in  the  application  of  skill  and  taste  to  in- 
dustry, that  we  find  one  of  the  main  causes  of  that  vast  wealth 
of  France,  which  is  indeed  a  marvel  when  we  consider  that 
she  has  been  engaged  in  so  many  costly  wars,  that  her  national 
debt  is  unequalled,  and  that  her  people  are  not  excessively  over- 
worked, but,  on  the  other  hand,  are  the  gayest  in  the  world.  Her 
manufactures  have  long  been  renowned  for  the  skill  and  taste  which 
they  embody ;  and  it  is  these  manufactures,  not,  as  with  us,  bread- 
stuffs  and  raw  materials,  that  compose  the  great  bulk  of  her 
exports.1  Her  textile  manufactures  alone  amount  to  some  $700,- 
000,000  annually,  nearly  double  the  textile  manufactures  of  the 
United  States.  Her  exports  of  all  kinds  of  manufactured  pro- 
ducts in  1874  amounted  to  $434,513,800.  As  was  to  be  expected, 
agriculture  flourishes  no  less  than  manufactures.  In  1869  France, 
with  a  domain  smaller  than  that  of  Texas,  produced  297,000,000 
bushels  of  wheat,  that  being  67,000,000  bushels  more  than  the 
product  of  the  United  States  as  given  in  the  census  of  1870.  She 
also  produced  275,000,000  bushels  of  potatoes,  that  being  155,- 
000,000  in  excess  of  the  American  yield.  The  value  of  the 
natural  alimentary  products  which  she  exported  in  1874  was' 
$298,335,000,  about  the  same  as  the  value  of  similar  exports  from 
the  United  States.  Wine  and  brand}',  cheaply  transported,  made 
up  $60,000,000  of  the  whole  amount.  These  figures  are  enough  to 

shows  that  the  British  Government  realize  the  importance  of  having  workmen 
take  pride  and  delight  in  their  work  :  — 

"What  is  the  quality  of  the  work  executed  by  workmen?  Are  they  gen- 
erally competent  in  their  several  departments  ?  Do  the  artisans  take  a  pride 
in  their  work,  and  put  their  character  into  it?  "Would  they  make  a  stand 
against  doing  bad  work  as  they  would  against  receiving  bad  wages?  Is 
there  any  class  of  artisans  whose  work  can  be  depended  upon  as  good  from 
the  sense  of  honor  they  have  in  executing  it?  What  influence  has  the  skill 
and  trustworthiness  of  the  workmen  in  any  department  of  industry  exercised 
upon  the  rate  of  wages  ?" 

i  According  to  "  L'Econoniiste  Frausais,"  the  total  value  of  French  exports 
for  1874  was  $775,550,600,  grouped  as  follows:  manufactures,  $434,513,800; 
natural  alimentary  products,  $298,335,000;  other  merchandise,  $42,701,800.  The 
following  are  some  of  the  items:  silk  tissues,  $95,433,200;  woollen  tissues  and 
yarn,  $78,218,400;  cotton  tissues  and  yarn,  $15,859,400;  linen  goods,  $12,941,000; 
wines,  $47,316,f>00;  floss  silk,  $24,0(55,800;  cereals,  $28,291,400. 


AMERICAN  PREFACE.  XXXI 

show  that  in  France  agriculture  is  exceedingly  prosperous ;  and 
this  great  manufacturing  and  agricultural  prosperity  is  due  to  what  ? 
To  various  things,  of  course  ;  but  probably  to  no  one  thing  more 
than  to  the  art- industrial  education  of  the  people.  Such  is  the 
view  of  the  Austrian  report  here  printed,  and  such  is  the  view  of 
numerous  other  authorities.1  Looking  at  the  experience  of  France, 
one  may  safely  affirm  that  the  farmer  who  contributes  to  the  sup- 
port of  popular  art-education,  is  most  effectually  promoting,  though 
indirectly,  the  advancement  of  his  own  fortune. 

GOOD  FOR  THE  WHOLE,  GOOD  FOR  THE  PARTS. 


Whatever  promotes  the  prosperity  of  a  nation  as  a  whole,  must, 
of  course,  promote  the  prosperity  of  its  parts.  Skill  and  taste  do 
the  former*;  they  must,  therefore,  promote  the  prosperity  of  a  city, 
town,  or  village.  Then  how  to  secure  this  skill  and  taste,  is  the 
question.  To  repeat  what  has  already  been  said,  there  is  but  one 
positively  certain  way,  and  that  is  to  educate.  Skill  and  taste  are 
the  peculiar  products  of  no  land,  nor  can  they  ever  be  had  for  the 
mere  wishing.  In  protective  tariffs  there  is  too  much  premium  on 

1  A  recent  number  of  "The  New  York  Tribune"  contained  a  highly 
eulogistic  letter  from  Hugh  McCulloch  on  "  The  Finances  of  France."  Mr. 
McCulloch  was  formerly  Secretary  of  the  United  States  Treasury;  he  is  now  a 
banker  in  London.  It  is  thus  he  speaks  of  the  French  artisans  to  whose  skill 
and  taste  he  attributes  a  large  part  of  French  prosperity:  "  They  are  emi- 
nently skilful  and  tasteful.  The  raw  materials,  which  are  the  basis  of  articles 
of  taste  and  elegance,  acquire  in  the  hands  of  French  artisans  greater  value 
than  in  the  hands  of  the  artisans  of  any  other  nation.  The  manufactures  of 
France  are  varied  and  extensive,  and,  being  uninterrupted  by  'strikes,'  her 
capacity  to  produce  seems  to  be  almost  unlimited.  French  goods  are  found 
among  all  nations,  and  there  is  a  constantly  increasing  demand  for  them  at 
remunerative  prices.  In  every  thing  appertaining  to  personal  adornment, 
France  leads  the  world.  The  palm  maybe  yielded  reluctantly,  but  all  nations 
do  admit  the  superiority  of  French  taste  and  of  French  manufactures  in  all 
matters  of  dress.  '  I  should  like  to  see,'  says  '  H.  H.'  in  her  charming  '  Bits  of 
Travel,'  '  I  should  like  to  see  the  woman  who  could  go  through  Paris  without 
buying  a  new  gown.'  It  would  be  difficult  to  find  a  tasteful  woman  anywhere 
who  does  not  approve  of  the  latest  style  from  Paris.  The  tribute  which  other 
nations  pay  to  the  ingenuity  of  French  artisans  and  artists  in  the  manufacture 
of  dress  goods,  and  the  making  up  of  dresses,  is  exceedingly  large.  Even  in 
England,  so  different  in  the  character  of  her  people,  not  only  has  French  cook- 
ery superseded  the  English,  but  French  taste  in  every  thing  appertaining  to 
wearing  apparel  is  the  standard  of  fashion." 


XXxii  AMERICAN  PREFACE. 

ignorance  for  the  lasting  good  of  even  those  they  are  intended 
specially  to  protect ;  and  the  free  trade  which  exposes  rude  labor 
to  the  sharp  competition  of  skilled,  artistic  labor,  puts  the  former 
at  great  disadvantage  as  well  in  the  home  as  in  the  foreign  market. 
Against  foreign  competition  nothing  but  skill  and  taste  can  give 
our  labor  effectual  and  permanent  protection,  while  leaving  us-  all 
the  advantage  of  a  natural  system  of  exchange.  At  home,  since 
trade  is  unrestricted,  there  is,  of  course,  nothing  left  any  town  or 
State  but  to  protect  itself  by  properly  educating  its  labor,  and  thus 
re-enforcing  whatever  superior  natural  advantages  it  may  possess. 
This  it  owes  to  itself  as  a  State  or  town,  and  then  to  each  child 
reared  within  i^ts  limits. 

GENERAL  CHARACTER  OF  PUBLIC  EDUCATION. 

The  general  character  of  this  education  should  not  be  determined 
b}T  merely  local  circumstances ;  for  with  perpetual  migration,  and 
in  the  absence  of  caste,  there  is  no  assurance  that  any  American 
child  will  do  what  his  father  did  before  him,  or  will  die  where  he 
first  saw  the  light.  Though  born  in  the  most  secluded  farmhouse, 
he  should  be  treated  as  the  child  of  the  whole  country,  and  so 
educated  that  he  may  have  a  fair  chance  with  his  fellows  wherever 
he  may  make  his  home.  By  this  it  is  not  meant  that  he  should  be 
trained  to  a  special  knowledge  of  all  kinds,  or  any  kind,  of  labor, 
but  that  he  should  be  made  acquainted,  through  the  study  of  lan- 
guage, mathematics,  science,  and  art,  with  the  general  principles 
which  underlie  them  all,  and  with  those  practical  applications 
which,  without  retarding  the  acquisition  of  principles,  can  be  learned 
at  the  same  time.  General  culture  and  a  fair  start  in  any  pursuit 
demand  so  much  for  all.  Again  :  in  determining  what  should  be 
the  general  character  of  the  education  given  American  youth  to-da}T, 
we  must  regard  the  present  and  prospective  condition  of  things, 
and  not  educate  on  the  basis  of  what  was  required  fifty  or  twenty- 
five  years  ago.  We  must  also  look  abroad,  recognizing  the  fact 
that  American  life  and  industry  feel  the  influence  of  the  remotest 
parts  of  the  civilized  globe.  It  is  only  by  thus  shaping  the  general 
form  of  American  popular  education  that  it  can  be  made  adequate 
to  the  requirements  of  the  age. 


AMERICAN  PREFACE.  XXXlll 

RECAPITULATION. 

Here  let  us  recapitulate  the  points  which  have  been  considered 
in  this  discussion  :  — 

1.  A  long  age  of  industrial  conflicts  has  begun.     The  govern- 
ments of  Europe,  realizing  that  henceforth  national   supremacy 
will  be  determined  more  and  more  by  industrial  supremacy,  are 
arming  their  workmen  of  all  kinds  and  grades  with  the  best  weap- 
ons that  art  and  science  can  furnish. 

2.  All  that  they  are  doing  for  industrial  education  is  justified  by 
the  fact,  that  the  artisan  class  are  rapidly  gaining  upon  the  whole 
population,  and  that  manufactures  are  rapidly  increasing  in  com- 
parative importance. 

3.  It  is  justified  by  the  fact  that  the  competition  which  the 
workman  must  meet  is  growing  wider  and  more  intense  every  day. 

4.  It  is  also  justified  by  the  fact  that  manufactures  embodying 
skill  and  taste  are  more  advantageous  to  a  country  than  rude  man- 
ufactures. 

5.  It  is  well  that  we  should  study  what  Europe  is  doing  for 
industrial  education,  because  in  her  artisans  we  find  our  great 
rivals  ;  because  industrial  education,  however  it  may  be  with  polit- 
ical education,  needs  to  be  much  the  same  the  world  over,  and  so 
what  is  good  for  a  European  is  good  for  an  American. 

6.  In  the  matter  of  numbers,  our  artisan  classes,  compared  with 
the  rest  of  our  population,  are  advancing  to  the  front ;  and  our 
manufactures,  already  of  respectable    proportions,  are    steadily 
gaining  in  relative  as  well  as  absolute  importance.     It  is  only  by 
carrying  our  manufactures  to  the  highest  pitch  of  excellence  that 
our  agriculture  can  be  made  the  most  prosperous. 

7.  To-day  our  manufactures  are  distinguished  rather  for  quan- 
tity than  quality.     Much  skill  has  been  expended  for  the  purpose 
of  accelerating  production  and  lowering  prices.     Compared  with, 
this  the  expenditure  of  skill  and  taste  for  the  purpose  of  increas- 
ing quality,  and  thereby  advancing  prices,  has  been  but  slight. 

8.  Hence  the  value  added  by  the  process  of  manufacture  is 
much  less  than  the  value  of  the  raw  material  consumed.     Hence  - 
we  export  food  and  raw  materials,  and  import  manufactures  em-- 
bodying  skill  and  taste.     All  this  should  be  decidedly  modified  by 


XXXI V  AMERICAN  PREFACE. 

improving  the  quality  of  our  manufactures,  and  by  consuming  a 
larger  proportion  of  our  raw  materials  at  home. 

9.  Price  can  be  increased  only  by  increasing  the  quality  of 
manufactures ;  and    the  quality  can  be  increased  only  by  an  in- 
creased expenditure  of  skill  and  taste,  especially  of  taste  as  dis- 
played in  the  form  of  the  object  or  of  its  decoration. 

10.  Skill  and  taste  are  mainly  the  product  of  education.     It  is 
only  upon  workmen  who  have  been  suitably  educated  in  science 
and  art,  especially  in  art,  that  we  can  securely  count  to  carry  our 
manufactures  to  any  high  pitch  of  excellence.     Back  of  the  skilled, 
artistic  workman,  needs  to  be  a  public  taste  to  create  a  demand  for 
his  products,  and  to  stimulate  him  to  greater  efforts. 

ART-INDUSTRIAL    EDUCATION   THE   PRIME    NECESSITY. 

According  to  the  condition  of  things  which  has  been  described, 
the  future  growth  and  prosperity  of  the  United  States  must  come 
largely  from  the  growth  and  prosperity  of  her  artisan  classes. 
The  growth  and  prosperity  of  these  classes  will  depend  on  the 
success  with  which  they  can  meet  the  competition  of  the  world  ; 
and  this  success  will  depend  largely  on  the  school  education  they 
;have  received,  and  especially  on  the  art  element  of  that  education. 
Europe  is  putting  into  her  industries  millions  of  men  and  women 
trained  in  art  and  science,  but  especially  in  art ;  and  she  is  making 
vast  and  sj'stematic  efforts  to  elevate  as  well  the  public  taste  as 
that  of  the  artisans.  We  can  do  no  less  ;  we  can  meet  such  com- 
petition only  in  kind*;  our  people  must  be  educated  in  art.  Now, 
the  basis  upon  which  all  instruction  in  art-  must  rest  is  drawing,  — 
the  representation  of  form.  Man}r,  taking  some  one  feature  of 
drawing  to  be  all  there  is  of  it,  greatly  misapprehend  its  true 
scope.  For  example,  drawing  may  be  thought  to  consist  simply 
in  the  representation  of  objects  which  already  exist ;  whereas  for 
industrial  purposes  drawing  must  be  mainly  employed  for  the  rep- 
resentation of  objects  which  do  not  exist,  but  which  are  to  be 
made.  -An  account  of  the  different  kinds  of  drawing,  with  their 
manifold  applications,  would  be  interesting,  but  it  is  not  necessary 
'to  give  it  here. 

As  to  the  general  manner,  however,  of  conducting  instruction 
.in  drawing  and  art,  a  few  words  may  not  be  out  of  place.  It 


AMERICAN  PREFACE.  XXXV 

should  be  thoroughly  rational,  —  should  accord  with  those  rec- 
ognized educational  principles  which  can  never  be  safely  violated, 
whatever  the  subject  taught.  If  drawing  and  art  have  no  ele- 
ments which  can  be  treated  in  a  rational  manner,  as  all  other 
studies  have,  then  they  cannot  be  taught  at  all.  What  is  acquired 
simply  by  imitation,  or  as  a  matter  of  mere  vague  feeling,  is 
never  learned  in  any  true  sense,  —  is  never  understood.  This 
Austrian  report  treats  instruction  in  drawing  and  art  as  a  matter 
which  can  be  subjected  to  reason,  and  treated  according  to  true 
pedagogical  principles.  Hence  it  is  believed,  that,  while  it  will 
tend  to  give  a  juster  view  of  the  scope  and  importance  of  art- 
industrial  education,  it  will  also  afford  knowledge  that  will  prove 
of  special  service  to  the  teacher.  There  are  points  in  the  report 
which  will  be  condemned  by  some  who  are  good  authorities  on  art- 
education,  —  points  which  future  experience  and  investigation  may 
show  to  be  incorrect.  But  the  fact  remains,  that  the  report  is  per- 
vaded by  a  rational  educational  spirit,  and  so  must  command 
respect  for  the  principles  which  it  lays  down  for  the  guidance  of 
art  instruction.  Some  of  these  principles  are  here  enumerated  :  — 

1.  All    instruction   in  drawing    should    have    for    its    basis, 
geometry.  ^is'1- 

2.  Conventional  forms,  which   are   regular,  should  be   drawn 
before  natural  forms,  which  are  irregular. 

3.  Ornament  should  be  based  upon  a  studjr  of  nature,  especial- 
ly of  plant  forms.     This  does  not  mean  that  the  drawing  of  the 
latter  should  precede  the  drawing  of  the  former. 

4.  When  a  design  for  an  object  is  made,  the  form  should  be 
adapted  to  the  use,  and  the  ornament  should  be  subordinate  to  the 
object.     The  decoration  should  not  count  for  every  thing. 

5.  Much  attention  should  be  given  to  the  drawing  of  historical 
forms  illustrative  of  different  styles.     The  drawing-copies  should 
have  a  pronounced  character. 

6.  When  natural  forms  are  drawn,  they  should  be  first  referred 
to  the   general   geometrical   forms   upon   which   they  are   based. 
Then  the  historical  treatment  of  similar  forms  should  be  carefully 
studied. 

7.  Knowledge   should  precede   execution.      Nothing  is  more 
deadening  to  the  intellect  of  the  pupil  than  to  copy  a  drawing 


XXXVI  AMERICAN  PREFACE. 

which  he  does  not  understand.     He  should  not  only  learn  to  do  a 
thing,  but  the  reason  for  doing  it. 

8.  In   the   order   of    instruction,  the   rendering   of  pure   form 
should  take,  decided  precedence  of  light  and  shade. 

9.  Instruction  in  drawing  should  not  be  limited  to  any  one  kind 
of  drawing. 

10.  In  order  to  develop  the  taste  of  the  learner,  the  drawing- 
copies  and  models  should  be  as  beautiful  as  it  is  possible  to  make 
them.     This  is  a  matter  of  the  utmost  importance. 

11.  The  pupil  should  be  constantly  exercised  in  making  original 
designs,  — original  applications  of  all  the  principles  he  acquires. 

12.  The   study  of    the   human  figure  should  not  be  made  the 
foundation  of  art-industrial  education.     It  should  not  form  the 
beginning  of  art-instruction  for  any  purpose. 

13.  Those  teachers  succeed  best  who  recognize  instruction  in 
drawing  as  an  integral   part  of  general  culture,  and  treat  it  ac- 
cording to  systematic  pedagogical  principles  and  methods. 

14.  The  instruction,  in  order  to  reach  all,  as  demanded  both  by 
general  culture  and  by  industry,  should  be  made  universal,  and 
should  begin  in  the  primary  school.     Special  applications  should 
be  reserved  for  special  schools. 

TWO    OBJECTIONS. 

Without  doubt,  two  objections  will  be  made  to  the  general  drift 
of  this  discussion.  The  one  will  come  from  those  who  hold  that 
the  public  schools  should  aim  at  general  culture,  at  mental  disci- 
pline, giving  little  heed  to  the  amount  of  information  imparted, 
and  no  heed  whatever  to  direct  business  or  industrial  results. 
To  form,  not  to  inform,  to  make  men,  not  workmen,  is,  in  their 
judgment,  the  only  thing  worthy  the  consideration  of  a  public 
educator.  But  there  is  another,  and,  it  is  believed,  a  more  sensi- 
ble view,  which  holds  that  to  make  a  good  workman  is  to  make  a 
man ;  that  the  acquisition  of  useful  knowledge  does  not  stand  in 
the  way  of  mental  discipline  ;  that  the  public  schools  should  aim 

1,  to  teach  the  things  of  direct  use  to  the  largest  number,  and, 

2,  to  teach  these  things  in  such  a  way  as  to  afford  the  utmost 
amount  of  mental   discipline.      A  knowledge   of   the   practical 
applications  of  drawing  and  art  is  of  direct  use  to  vast  numbers. 


AMERICAN  PREFACE.  XXXVii 

To  show  this  has  been  the  main  object  of  the  discussion  thus  far. 
It  might  also  be  easily  shown  that  this  knowledge,  and  the  disci- 
pline which  comes  with  the  effort  to  acquire  it,  form  an  essential 
element  of  general  culture,  an  element  obtainable  from  no  other 
study,  an  element  which,  if  one  lacks,  he  cannot  be  said  to  have 
been  symmetrically  trained.  Indeed,  until  this  element  is  added, 
our  public  education  must  continue,  as  it  is,  emphatically  lop- 
sided, not  only  from  the  industrial,  but  from  the  culture  point  of 
view.  But  this  is  a  matter,  which,  important  as  it  is,  need  not  be 
considered  at  the  present  time. 

The  second  objection  will  come  from  those  who  look  upon  art  as 
something  peculiarly  divine.  The}7  are  shocked  when  one  talks  of 
making  art  contribute  to  the  daily  wages  of  the  artisan,  to  the 
volume  of  trade,  to  national  prosperity,  and  the  sinews  of  war. 
They  believe  that  the  decided  industrial  tendency  which  art-edu- 
cation is  taking  in  this  country  will  prove  destructive  to  all  the 
higher  manifestations  of  art ;  that  a  people  once  taught  to  make 
beautiful  calico  prints,  shoes,  table-ware,  furniture,  will  be  con- 
tent to  do  nothing  more.  They  also  believe  that  instruction  in 
neither  industrial  nor  fine  art  can  be  reduced  to  fixed  principles  and 
methods,  and  so  believe  that  art  cannot  be  taught  in  schools  as 
other  things  are  taught.  Consequently  they  take  delight  in  telling 
how  impossible  it  is  to  do  what  the  great  masters  have  done, 
instead  of  attempting  to  show  how  the  great  masters  actuall}*  went 
to  work  to  secure  their  wonderful  results.1  It  will  be  proper  to 
answer  these  objectors,  —  to  show  that  there  is  no  antagonism,  but 
the  reverse,  between  industrial  art  and  fine  art,  and  that  each 
rests  upon  a  mass  of  definite,  teachable  facts  and  principles,  many 
of  which  they  have  in  common. 

i  "  The  lectures  to  the  public  are  given  from  a  different  standpoint  than 
that  adopted  by  many  of  our  lecturers  on  art  and  its  technics.  In  Vienna  the 
lecturer  aims  to  show  the  young  aspirant  how  to  make  a  beginning,  and  how 
to  progress  upward  in  the  study  of  the  fine  arts;  while  here  lecturers  who 
attempt  to  discoiirse  upon  art  and  artists  generally  strive  to  show  how  impos- 
sible it  is  for  any  one  to  reach  the  height  attained  by  the  masters  of  old,  thus 
chilling  the  wakening  enthusiasm  of  their  hearers,  among  whom,  perhaps, 
may  be  some  who  would  have  liked  to  make  an  effort  to  acquire  art  skill  and 
knowledge  for  themselves."  — From  the  special  report  made  by  Louis  J.  Hinton, 
who  attended  the  Vienna  Exposition,  to  the  State  of  Massachusetts,  on  "Museums 
of  Art  and  Industry." 


XXXVJii  AMERICAN  PREFACE. 

NO   HISTORIC   ANTAGONISM   BETWEEN   FINE  ART  AND  INDUSTRIAL  ART. 

No  broad  and  clear-cut  distinction  can  be  made  between  fine 
art,  and  art  as  applied  to  industry,  such  as  will  enable  one  to  say, 
all  upon  this  side  belongs  to  fine  art,  all  upon  that  to  industrial 
art.  It  is  true  that  in  certain  particulars  they  differ  decidedly ; 
but  in  others  they  as  decidedly  agree.  It  is  with  them  as  with 
poetry  and  prose,  with  speaking  and  singing,  with  pure  geometry 
and  geometry  as  .applied  to  mechanics.  It  is  no  degradation  of 
art,  as  the  same  thing  is  no  degradation  of  geometry,  to  make  it 
subserve  the  cause  of  industry  ;  that  is  only  making  art  perform  a 
portion  of  its  legitimate  work.  History  shows  that  the  periods 
which  have  been  especially  distinguished  for  achievements  in  fine 
art  have  also  been  especially  distinguished  for  applications  of  art 
to  industry.  Recent  times  furnish  an  illustration  of  this  fact  in 
the  case  of  France.  Of  her  art  it  may  be  most  emphatically  said, 
that  it  rests  upon  an  industrial  basis  ;  yet  where  has  fine  art  flour- 
ished better  during  the  last  hundred  years  ?  Again,  many  of 
those  familiar  with  the  individual  lives  of  the  great  masters  know 
that  many  of  them  began  their  studies  and  their  work  with  art 
applied  to  manufactures.  From  this  industrial  basis  they  ad- 
vanced to  painting  and  statuary,  to  the  representation  of  intelli- 
gence, of  spirit,  of  beauty  in  its  highest  form.  Nor  did  the  great 
artists  of  former  ages  think  it  beneath  their  dignity,  unworthy 
their  powers,  to  devote  a  part  of  their  time,  even  in  the  height  of 
their  renown,  to  making  designs  for  industrial  purposes.  They  were 
in  sympathy  with  the  working  world  around  them.  These  historical 
facts  are  enough  in  themselves  to  show  that  there  is  no  antagonism 
between  fine  art,  and  art  applied  to  industr}*.  A  rational  consid- 
eration of  the  matter,  showing  that  the  two  have  many  teachable 
things  in  common,  only  confirms  the  verdict  of  history. 

ART  NOT  A  MERE  MATTER  OF  FEELING,  BUT  TEACHABLE. 

Every  teachable  thing  must  have  an  indisputable  basis  of  fact 
and  reason.  It  is  utterly  vain  to  attempt  to  formulate  and  teach 
what  is  a  mere  matter  of  vague,  nndefinable  feeling  ;  for  when  the 
best  has  been  done  there  is  always  need  to  "  explain  the  explana- 
tion." Hence  it  is  that  those  who  regard  art  mainly  or  wholly  as 


AMERICAN  PREFACE.  xxxix 

a  matter  of  feeling,  believe  it  cannot  be  taught  as  other  things  are 
taught.  If  their  view  of  the  nature  of  art  is  correct,  then  their 
view  of  the  teaching  is  also  correct.  But  the  consequences  extend 
much  further  than  they  imagine  ;  for  such  a  view  of  art  leads  natu- 
rally to  purblind  criticism  and  chaotic  rhapsody  from  those  who 
discourse  upon  art;  while  the  work  of  those  who  practise  art 
in  such  faith  can  but  display  the  same  uncertain  character.1  But 
others  there  are,  and  their  number  is  increasing,  who  believe 
that  art  has  its  clearly  defined,  teachable  features,  which  can  be 
taught  in  the  same  rational  Way  that  other  things  are  taught. 
They  do  not  claim  that  all  matters  relating  to  art  can  be  thus 
taught,  that  great  artists  can  be  manufactured  to  order.^  By  no 
means.  With  Winckelmann  they  acknowledge  they  cannot  tell, 
for  example,  what  beauty  is  in  {jie-last  analysis  ;  yet  they  claim 
that  they  can  clearly  define1  »some  of  the  laws  of  beauty,  and 
teach  one  to  (Jiserimmate  with  intelligence  between  ugly  and 
beautiful  objects.  This  is  nothing  more  nor  less  than  what 
happens  in  every  other  department  of  knowledge. 

Ask  the  biologist  to  tell  you  what  is  vegetable  or  animal  life  in 
its  last  analysis,  and  he  will  reply  that  it  is  impossible.  But  will 

1  When  one,  in  the  use  of  language,  gives  no  heed  to  fixed  grammatical  rules 
and  rhetorical  principles,  but  relies  alone  upon  his  feelings  for  proper  expres- 
sion, the  result  is  apt  to  be  somewhat  remarkable.  Here  is  an  illustrative 
instance.  "The  Boston  Advertiser,"  May  25,  1875,  contained  the  following 
patriotic  burst  from  a  circular  issued  by  an  Irish  organization:  — 

"  Remember  1775.  —  Sons  of  the  sires  of  '98,  you  are  respectfully  reminded  by  this 
notice,  and  in  accordance  with  the  spirit  of  '76,  together  with  the  patriotism  of  this  or- 
ganization, that  on  the  coming  17th  of  June  you  will  respond  together  with  the  tens  of 
thousands  who  will  rejoice  to  honor  the  memory  of  the  past,  and  perpetuate  the  chivalry 
of  those  whose  sons  were  emblazoned  with  freedom  against  tyranny,  and  resolved  to  die, 
or  live  as  free  men,  the  result  of  which  shook  the  pillars  of  tyranny  and  despotism  in 
Europe.  It  is  hoped  that  you  will  join  with  us  on  this  centennial  celebration  with  martial 
music  and  freeman's  duty,  beneath  the  shadow  of  Bunker  Hill,  in  glorious  Columbia,  the 
refuge  of  the  oppressed  of  all  nations,  as  you  are  the  sons  of  the  fathers  whose  untiring 
patriotism  and  love  of  freedom  made  these  British  vipers  bite  the  dust." 

Here  we  have  a  suitable  occasion,  and  plenty  of  feeling,  —  two  essential  con- 
ditions for  a  display  of  "  fine  art "  in  writing.  Verily,  the  result  would  have 
been  more  pleasing,  had  the  writer  paid  some  attention  to  a  few  simple  things 
that  should  be  learned  by  the  youngest  pupils  in  a  grammar  school.  But  such 
displays  are  not  confined  to  literature  alone:  they  are  witnessed  in  art,  when 
the  artist  takes  feeling  alone  for  his  guide.  This  is  the  truth  of  the  matter. 
Every  artist,  as  every  writer,  must  work  according  to  definite  rules  and  prin- 
ciples which  he  has  either  been  taught,  or  else  has  acquired  by  experience. 


xl  AMERICAN  PREFACE. 

he  hesitate  about  giving  an  explanation  of  the  laws  and  conditions 
of  animal  or  vegetable  growth  ?  No,  indeed.  He  will  assert  that 
he  knows  much  about  these  matters  which  can  be  described  and 
taught  with  the  utmost  certainty.  Ask  the  chemist  whether  he 
can  inform  you  what  gives  to  food  that  peculiar  flavor,  lacking 
which  food  is  not  appetizing  and  life-supporting,  and  he  will  reply 
that  it  is  beyond  the  reach  of  chemical  analysis,  and  that  no 
chemically  compounded  food  can  be  substituted  for  the  natural 
product.  But  he  will  not  hesitate  to  say  that  he  can  give  a  vast 
deal  of  other  and  useful  information  about  food  ;  that  he  can  tell 
what  ingredients  to  add  to  any  given  soil  to  improve  the  wheat 
crop,  and  with  what  to  feed  animals  to  keep  them  in  health  and 
to  improve  their  flesh  for  the  table. 

Just  so  it  is  with  those  wrho  have  made  a  study  of  what  is  called, 
for  the  want  of  a  better  name,  Art-science.  While  they  realize 
and  acknowledge  that  many  things  pertaining  to  art  have  not  yet 
been  explained,  and  that  some  of  them  probably  never  will  be, 
they,  on  the  contrary,  hold  that  other  things  have  been  definitely 
settled,  and  can  be  taught  with  precision.  This  teachable  art- 
knowledge  has  been  derived  from  a  study  of  art  as  illustrated  in 
the  works  of  the  past,  also  from  the  study  of  nature  as  the 
original  source  of  art.  Some  of  it  has  come,  indirectly,  from  a 
study  of  nature  for  other  purposes,  as  for  the  purposes  of  chem- 
istry and  physics  ;  indeed,  it  is  impossible  to  draw  a  clear  line  of 
demarkation  between  art  and  science.  Art  is  not  wholly  independ- 
ent of  other  lines  of  human  endeavor.  It  may  not  be  out  of 
place  to  enumerate  some  of  these  teachable  elements  of  art. 

FORMS   AND   LINES. 

All  art  involves  the  representation  of  forms.  The  simplest  and 
elemental  forms,  those  upon  which  rest  all  the  varied  forms  of 
art  and  nature,  are  geometric.  It  is  essential  to  know  these  as 
they  really  are,  and  the  power  to  draw  them  should  be  acquired 
before  an  attempt  is  made  to  draw  forms  of  greater  intricacy. 
But  the  representation  of  forms  by  any  method  calls  for  lines,  and 
not  unfrequently  for  mathematical  lines,  that  is,  lines  which  are 
expressed  by  an  equation.  Mathematical  lines  are  especially  em- 
pi  0}*ed  by  those  who  are  engaged  in  designing  the  beautiful  forms 


AMERICAN  PREFACE.  xli 

of  objects  for  manufacture  and  in  decorative  art,  as  well  as  by 
draughtsmen  and  architects,  who  use  them  for  purposes  of  con- 
struction. Nature,  too,  employs  them :  thus  her  use  of  the  vari- 
able spiral  is  charmingly  illustrated  by  the  longitudinal  section  of 
a  nautilus  shell.  Indeed,  her  whole  fabric  rests  upon  geometry, 
from  whose  rigid  outlines  she  departs  only  in  matters  of  detail. 
The  artist  should,  therefore,  be  perfectly  familiar  with  geometric 
forms  and  mathematical  lines,  making  this  knowledge  aid  him,  as 
it  can  most  effectually,  in  the  production  of  new  forms  for  indus- 
trial purposes,  and  in  the  rendering  of  natural  forms  for  purely 
artistic  purposes.  Now,  these  things  can  be  taught  with  mathe- 
matical precision  ;  a  "  feeling  for  form  "  is  not  at  all  essential. 

SEEING   WITH   THE   UNDERSTANDING. 

All  art  involves  the  seeing  of  objects  just  as  they  are  pre- 
sented to  the  eye  by  their  outlines,  and  by  the  modifications  of  light 
and  shade.  If  the  forms  are  imaginary,  they  must  be  represented 
as  they  would  appear  if  they  existed  and  were  seen  under  the 
given  conditions.  Mere  possession  of  the  faculty  of  sight  is  no 
guaranty  of  that  true  vision  which  is  required  by  art.  If  one 
would  see  truly,  he  must  see  with  the  understanding.  To  this  end 
the  essential  thing  is  a  knowledge  of  the  laws  of  vision,  of  fore- 
shortening, of  perspective  effects,  of  the  projection  of  shadows  ; 
and  all  this  knowledge  rests  upon  a  rigid  mathematical  basis,  and 
so  can  be  imparted  with  mathematical  precision.  Mere  "feeling 
for  light  and  shade,"  or  for  any  thing  else,  has  nothing  to  do  with 
the  matter.  Of  course  there  is  much  about  chiaroscuro  that  can- 
not be  taught  with  such  positive  assurance. 

COLOR. 

Both  decorative  and  pictorial  art  have  much  to  do  with  color. 
Now,  in  the  study  of  color  there  are  three  definite  things  to  be 
regarded  :  facts,  scientific  laws,  historic  usage.  Different  colors 
can  be  learned  as  facts ;  and,  in  learning  them,  one  has  the  fixed 
solar  spectrum  for  his  guidance.  Thus  the  eye  can  learn  readily 
to  distinguish  thousands  of  colors.  There  is  also  a  knowledge  of 
dyes,  of  pigments,  of  approaching  and  retreating  colors,  and  of 


xlii  AMERICAN  PREFACE. 

certain  arrangements  of  colors,  which  can  be  acquired  in  the  same 
way.  The  scientific  study  of  color  shows  that  all  the  observable 
facts  are  subject  to  rigid  laws,  which  can  be  explained  with  peda- 
gogical precision,  and  a  knowledge  of  which  contributes  greatl}r  to 
one's  success  in  the  use  of  color,  or  to  his  enjoyment  of  its  effects. 
Simply  by  repeated  experiment  one  may  learn,  for  example,  that, 
if  he  desires  to  make  an  exact  copy  of  a  colored  pattern,  he 
must  not  use  just  the  colors  he  thinks  he  sees,  but  other  colors, 
which,  placed  side  by  side,  will  produce  the  general  effect  of  the 
given  pattern ;  but  a  scientific  study  of  the  subject  enables  him  to 
understand  the  reciprocal  influence  of  juxtaposed  colors,  and  so 
to  produce  at  will  any  effect  that  may  be  required.  Thus  some- 
thing more  than  the  mere  faculty  of  sight  is  demanded  for  the  in- 
telligent handling  of  color.  It  is  true  that  a  person  who  has  a 
quick  perception  of  color,  and  a  very  retentive  memory,  may 
learn,  without  attending  at  all  to  the  science  of  color,  a  great  deal 
about  its  proper  artistic  use ;  but  what  he  learns  slowly  in  this 
empirical  way,  he  would  learn  rapidly  by  the  scientific  study  of 
his  subject,  and,  when  once  master  of  the  science,  he  would  be 
prepared  to  "  mix  his  colors  with  brains."  An  historic  study  of 
color  shows  how  color  has  been  used.  This  is  sure  ground,  too, 
especially  so  far  as  the  use  of  flat  tints  for  decorative  purposes. 
Of  course  there  is  much  essential  to  the  proper  handling  of  color 
that  cannot  be  formulated  with  scientific  precision.  Especially  is 
this  true  in  the  case  of  chiaroscuro;  yet  a  prior  knowledge  of 
what  can  be  taught  with  scientific  precision  is  essential  to  a  com- 
plete- mastery  of  what  cannot  be  thus  taught.  And  so  it  is  not 
merely  a  blind  '•  feeling  for  color  "  that  the  artist  should  possess, 
but  also  positive  knowledge. 

DECORATIVE  AET. 

Decorative  art  employs  both  form  and  color ;  and,  so  far  as 
these  can  be  taught  with  precision,  so  far  decorative  art  has  a 
teachable  basis.  But  other  things  there  are  which  can  be  taught 
with  precision, — things  to  imitate,  things  to  shun;  things,  if 
one  does  imitate,  he  is  certain  to  go  right,  and  things,  if  he  does 
not  shun,  he  is  certain  to  go  wrong.  Among  the  things  to 
imitate  is  the  rhythmical  construction  and  the  rhythmical  arrange- 


AMERICAN  PREFACE.  xliii 

ment  of  ornamental  forms,  a  matter  which  can  be  so  readily 
exemplified  by  an  appeal  to  historic  usage,  or  by  an  appeal  to 
nature,  especially  to  the  vegetable  world,' — the  great  source  of 
decorative  art.  It  is  this  rhythm,  more  than  any  thing  else,  that 
distinguishes  decorative  from  purely  pictorial  art.  Then  the  use 
to  which  the  decorative  object  is  to  be  put,  the  material  of  which 
it  is  to  be  made,  and  the  mode  of  production,  the  position  and 
light  in  which  the  ornament  is  to  be  viewed  after  it  has  been 
wrought,  with  many  other  particulars,  are  all  to  be  duly  consid- 
ered. About  these  matters  there  is  much  that  can  be  positively 
taught.  Thus  an  ornament  suitable  to  engrave  on  silver  may  be 
altogether  unsuitable  to  cut  in  granite,  a  material  so  different  from 
silver  ;  and  an  ornament  to  be  viewed  in  a  poor  light,  or  at  a  great 
elevation,  requires  more  breadth,  more  large  features,  with  less 
of  fine  detail,  than  a  similar  ornament  to  be  viewed  in  a  strong 
light,  and  at  short  distance.  The  determination  of  such  things  as 
these  is  not  at  all  a  matter  of  feeling.  Of  course,  in  decoration, 
what  it  is  alwa}rs  proper  to  do  in  a  particular  case  is  not  always 
the  best  thing  to  do,  and  so  there  is  ever  an  abundance  of  room 
for  the  exercise  of  aesthetic  judgment.  Between  what  is  positively 
good  and  what  is  positively  bad,  there  is  a  wide  debatable  ground, 
with  which  the  teacher  need  not  concern  himself.  He  need  not, 
for  example,  undertake  to  show  just  where  science  ends,  and  art 
begins ;  just  where  decorative  art  passes  from  its  own  proper 
domain  into  that  of  pictorial  art ;  just  where  industrial  art  and  fine 
art  diverge,  each  taking  a  different  road :  nor  need  he  take  part  in 
the  "  battle  of  styles,"  though  he  should  and  can  teach  style, 
or  attempt  to  say  just  how  much  attention  should  be  paid  to  the 
precise  rendering  of  minute  details.  These  will  always  be  sub- 
jects for  endless  discussion  among  those  who  delight  in  things 
of  that  sort.  It  is  well  to  remember  that  there  is  nothing  sin- 
gular in  the  debatable  questions  which  have  been  mentioned. 
The  naturalist,  for  example,  finds  objects  he  cannot  affirm,  with 
positive  certaint}r,  to  belong  to  the  animal  or  to  the  vegetable 
kingdom,  to  this  species  or  to  that.  The  linguist  meets  with  the 
same  puzzles.  But,  after  one  has  made  due  allowance  for  all 
debatable  matters,  there  is  much  relating  to  decorative  art  that 
can  be  taught  with  absolute  positiveness. 


xliv  AMERICAN  PREFACE. 

THE    HUMAN    FIGURE. 

Even  when  we  come  to  the  artistic  treatment  of  the  human 
figure,  we  find  four  fundamental  preliminaries,  which  can  be 
taught  with  sufficient  exactness  to  satisfy  educational  considera- 
tions. They  are,  the  anatomy  of  the  figure,  the  attitude  or  action 
of  the  figure,  the  elements  of  facial  expression,  the  massing  of  the 
figure.  It  is  by  study  of  the  skeleton  that  the  ground  knowledge 
of  the  proportions  of  the  human  figure  and  of  the  foreshortening 
of  its  parts,  also  of  attitude  or  action,  as  indicated  by  sitting, 
standing,  walking,  running,  dancing,  can  be  best  acquired.  This 
knowledge  of  its  internal  structure  and  varied  movement  is  the 
only  true  basis  for  the  artistic  representation  of  the  human  figure. 
Facial  expression  is  largely  a  matter  of  lines.  Hence  it  is  by  a 
careful  analysis  of  the  face,  by  stud}'ing  it  line  b}'  line,  that  one 
can  best  learn  to  distinguish,  first  in  extremes,  then  in  gradations, 
between  anger  and  laughter,  compassion  and  scorn,  grief  and  joy, 
fear  and  confidence,  vanity  and  pride,  and  so  on  to  the  end  of  the 
alphabet  of  character.  The  effect  of  each  line  when  considered 
by  itself  must  be  noted,  must  be  learned  with  the  most  rigid  pre- 
cision. It  is  easy  to  be  seen  in  the  study  and  representation  of 
character,  that  the  learner  should,  for  pedagogical  reasons,  draw 
1,  from  flat  copies,  2,  from  the  cast,  3,  from  life.  When  one 
comes  to  the  artistic  representation  of  the  whole  figure,  it  is 
proper  that  he  attend  first  to  the  masses  or  grand  divisions,  and 
not  advance  a  step  further  until  these  have  been  properly  rendered. 
To  facilitate  the  study  of  the  figure  by  masses,  and  to  make  the 
study  severely  accurate,  the  masses  should  be  first  treated  as  rigid 
geometrical  solids,  perfectly  preserving  the  proportions  and  action 
of  the  figure.  With  the  masses  of  the  figure  correct,  then  and 
only  then  is  it  time  to  attend  to  the  variable  details  of  nature. 
No  matter  how  exact  may  be  the  rendering  of  the  details,  the 
whole  result  cannot  be  good,  if  the  rendering  of  the  masses  of  the 
figure  is  wrong  and  the  action  faulty.1  Now,  it  is  not  at  all  a 

1  Mr.  F.  D.  Millett,  from  the  Antwerp  School  of  Art,  was  one  of  the  Mas- 
sachusetts Commissioners  to  the  Vienna  Exposition.  In  his  report  on  "Fine 
Arts  of  the  Present  Times,"  he  makes  the  following  remarks  about  the  treat- 
ment of  the  hiiman  figure:  — 

"  No  arguments  are  necessary  to  prove  the  value  of  a  general  indication  of 


AMERICAN  PREFACE.  xlv 

matter  of  vague  feeling,  —  this  preliminary  study  of  the  human 
figure  :  what  there  is  to  learn  is  of  a  rigidly  precise  character,  and 
altogether  teachable  according  to  ordinary  pedagogical  methods. 
Yet  the  artist  who  lacks  this  knowledge  lacks  that  which  is  essen- 
tial to  the  highest  success  in  the  representation  of  the  human  form 
and  spirit,  in  activity  or  repose.  However  delicate  his  aesthetic 
feeling,  he  can  never  be  a  master  of  his  art. 

But  such  a  view  of  the  proper  method  of  beginning  to  study  the 
human  figure  for  artistic  purposes  implies  a  deal  of  preliminary 
work,  of  drudgery  some  may  call  it,  before  results  are  reached. 
That,  however,  is  true  of  other  things,  —  of  law,  medicine,  engi- 
neering. Results  are  reached  in  these  things  only  after  long, 
laborious  stud}-.  There  are  those,  indeed,  who,  laughing  at  study, 
rely  upon  inspiration,  upon  the  vigor  of  their  untrained  genius ; 
or  more,  perhaps,  upon  the  credulity  of  the  public.  Such  are 
called  quacks  in  medicine,  pettifoggers  in  law.  Is  there  not 
also  danger  of  quacks  in  art,  if  hard,  systematic  study,  if  foun- 
dation principles  and  rational  beginnings,  are  ignored?  In  the 
artistic  study  of  the  human  figure,  to  begin  with  the  cast  is  to 
begin  where  the  master  left  oif,  and  to  begin  with  the  living  form 
is  to  begin  with  nature's  elaborate  product.  The  learner,  in  the 
first  instance,  ignores  all  the  preliminary  steps  taken  by  the 

the  character,  as  opposed  to  neglect  of  grand  lines  and  movements  in  the  elab- 
oration of  minutiae.  A  few  charcoal  lines,  giving  the  direction  of  the  mem- 
bers, and  indicating  in  the  simplest  way  the  action  of  a  figure,  are  more 
indicative  of  the  impression  the  figure  makes  upon  the  spectator,  than  the 
most  carefully  studied  drawing  of  the  same  object,  where  the  grand  lines  fail 
and  the  action  is  faulty.  Any" one  who  has  drawn  the  figure  knows  the  value 
of  the  first  few  strokes,  indicating,  not  the  sum-total  of  the  impression  made 
on  the  mind,  but  the  characteristics  of  it.  Then,  in  teaching,  show  the  begin- 
ner the  grand  movements  of  the  body,  the  most  characteristic  contours,  and 
the  just  relation  of  the  masses;  instruct  him  how  the  branches  vary  in  differ- 
ent species  of  trees,  how  the  foliage  is  massed  in  each,  and  everywhere  insist 
on  grand  character  and  simplicity.  The  importance  of  detail  is,  in  general, 
the  uppermost  idea  in  the  beginner's  mind,  and  the  instructor  will  rarely  have 
to  insist  on  this  quality  in  beginners'  work.  As  for  finish,  this  acquirement 
comes  of  itself:  certainly  enough  skill  in  this  direction  will  be  gained  by  the 
pupil  long  before  he  has  learned  the  grand  lessons  of  his  profession." 

Any  person  familiar  with  the  general  principles  which  are  regarded  by  the 
best  educators  as  underlying  all  good  instruction,  no  matter  what  the  subject 
taught,  would  say  at  once,  though  he  had  never  drawn  a  line  in  his  life,  that 
the  general  principles  enunciated  by  Mr.  Millett  must  be  correct.  All  other 
things,  when  well  taught,  are  taught  in  the  same  way:  first  the  masses,  then 
the  details.  Thus  it  is  with  history,  with  grammar,  with  geography,  with 
arithmetic  even,  with  botany,  with  zoology,  with  chemistry. 


xlvi  AMERICAN  PREFACE. 

master ;  in  the  second,  he  ignores  all  the  formative  processes  of 
nature. 

Mention  has  now  been  made  of  a  few  essential  elements  of  art 
knowledge,  —  elements  which  can  be  scientifically  treated,  and 
therefore  taught  with  that  precision  demanded  by  sound  educa- 
tional principles.  It  will  be  observed  that  industrial  art  and  fine 
art  haATe,  in  the  main,  the  same  elementary  basis ;  hence  that 
whatever  promotes  the  former  must  promote  the  latter  directly  or 
indirectly,  —  directly  by  educating  the  artist,  indirectly  by  edu- 
cating the  public  taste  and  judgment.  But,  while  industrial  art 
leads  to  fine  art,  the  latter  exerts  a  reflex  influence  upon  the  former, 
because  it  elevates  the  public  taste,  and  because  the  instruction 
specially  required  by  fine  art  often  proves  of  service  as  a  discipline 
to  the  artisan.  Thus  the  drawing  of  the  human  figure  is  an  excel- 
lent discipline  for  the  artisan  because  of  the  subtle  training  which 
it  affords  the  eye  and  hand.  But  to  make  the  human  figure  the 
foundation  of  all  art,  to  expect,  for  example,  by  persistently 
drawing  it  fully  to  develop  the  power  of  seeing,  or  to  produce  a 
good  industrial  designer  or  decorative  artist  of  any  kind,  is  the 
height  of  educational  absurdity. 

HOW   CAN   INSTRUCTION   IN   ART   BE   BEST   GIVEN? 

Finally,  how  can  instruction  in  the  teachable  elements  of  art  be 
best  given  ?  The  answer  shall  be  brief,  —  so  brief  that  it  will 
perhaps  appear  dogmatic.  As  the  whole  people  should  be  reached, 
the  means  must  be  adequate  to  the  end  desired.  There  must  be 
books,  drawing-copies,  models,  casts,  and,  for  some  of  the  ad- 
vanced work,  special  school  accommodations.  The  forms  given 
to  be  drawn,  whether  flat  copies  or  solid,  should  be  scrupulously 
exact,  should  have  pronounced  character,  and,  if  they  are  to  affect 
the  taste,  should  be  as  beautiful  as  it  is  possible  to  make  them. 
They  should,  of  course,  be  graded  according  to  sound  educational 
principles.  Then  the  forms  to  be  drawn,  especially  in  the  earlier 
stages  of  each  department,  should  be  accompanied  by  a  printed 
text,  on  whose  preparation  the  utmost  care  should  be  bestowed,  to 
the  end  that  not  only  the  requisite  information  may  be  given,  but 
that  all  inaccurate  and  slovenly  use  of  language  may  be  avoided 
as  in  the  preparation  of  a  grammar,  rhetoric,  or  other  school-book. 


AMERICAN  PREFACE.  xlvii 

A  carefully  prepared  text  is  thus  insisted  upon,  because  it  is  seen 
that  at  the  foundation  of  all  art  there  lies  a  great  body  of  facts 
and  principles,  which  can  be  described  in  language,  and  must  be  so 
described  in  order  that  they  may  be  learned.  If  this  verbal  de- 
scription is  possible  at  all,  —  and  no  one  will  den^y  it,  —  then  it  is 
possible  to  be  made  in  printed^  language  which  will  crystallize  the 
statement  of  facts  and  principles  for  universal  and  perpetual  use. 
Whenever  the  learner  fails  to  comprehend  the  text,  or  special 
circumstances  require  that  more  should  be  said,  then  the  text 
must  be  supplemented  by  oral  explanation  from  the  teacher.  A 
good  text  and  a  good  teacher  are  much  better  than  either  alone. 
Those  who  look  upon  art  as  a  mere  matter  of  feeling,  who  do  not 
acknowledge  such  a  thing  as  Art-science,  will,  of  course,  see  no 
use  in  such  a  text  as  described,  though  they  would  applaud  a 
printed  rhapsod}T  on  art  that  was  calculated  to  produce  a  tumult 
of  indefinable  feeling  in  the  bosom  of  the  learner.  Teachers  are 
another  essential  thing,  and  they  must  be  numerous  enough  to  do 
the  great  work  required.  What  should  be  their  qualifications? 
First,  they  should  possess  general  teaching  ability ;  second,  a 
knowledge  of  the  teachable  elements  of  art.  Hence  artists  as 
artists  are  not  required ;  of  course  there  can  be  no  objection  to 
them,  provided  they  also  know  how  to  teach.  If  they  lack  the 
teacher's  gift,  they  will  inevitably  fail.  Whoever,  therefore,  can 
learn  teachable  things,  and  having  learned  can  impart  their  knowl- 
edge to  others,  are  the  ones  to  give  instruction  in  art.  The  more, 
indeed,  they  know  beyond  what  they  are  required  to  teach,  the' 
better.  Hence,  to  disseminate  an  elementary  knowledge  of  art 
among  the  whole  people,  the  instruction  must  be^given  by  the 
regular  teachers  in  the  public  schools.  To  say,  as  some  do,  that 
we  can  have  no  good  instruction  in  art  until  we  have  great  artists 
for  teachers,  is  the  same  as  to  say  we  can  have  no  good  instruc- 
tion in  arithmetic,  in  grammar,  and  reading,  until  we  have  the 
pupils  in  our  public  schools  taught  by  great  mathematicians,  great 
poets,  great  orators.  There  are  probably  thousands  of  primary 
teachers  in  this  country  who  can  teach  the  elements  of  drawing 
better  than  could  Raphael,  just  as  Sherman  probably  had  hun- 
dreds of  sergeants  in  his  army  who  could  drill  a  company  better 
than  himself.  Give  the  regular  teachers  in  the  public  schools  the 


xlviii  AMERICAN  PREFACE. 

means  to  work  with,  make  the  study  of  the  elements  of  art  as  of 
mathematics  compulsory,  and  good  results  will  surely  be  secured. 
But  what  of  more  advanced  instruction  in  both  industrial  and  fine 
art?  This  must  be  given  in  well-appointed  art-schools,  otherwise 
it  can  be  made  neither  so  general  nor  so  good  as  it  should  be. 
Were  Massachusetts,  New  York,  Penns}Tlvania,  and  Illinois  as 
well  supplied  with  these  schools  as  England, — that  is,  for  each 
210,000  inhabitants  one  school  with  190  students,  —  Massachusetts 
would  have  7  of  them,  New  York  20,  Pennsylvania  17,  Illinois  12  ; 
which  would  give  the  four  States  a  total  of  57  schools,  with  10,640 
students.  These  schools,  supplied  with  all  necessary  means  for 
their  work,  should  be  in  the  charge  of  persons  who  possess  a  thor- 
ough knowledge  of  the  teachable  features  of  the  subjects  of 
instruction,  and  who,  in  addition  to  this  knowledge,  possess  tho 
ability  to  impart,  in  the  most  rational  way,  what  they  know. 
But  it  will  be  vehemently  urged  by  some,  that  this  teaching  of  the 
schools  cannot  be  effectual,  that  old  practices  should  be  followed, 
that  art-students  must  get  their  training,  if  it  is  to  be  of  any 
value,  in  the  studios  of  great  artists,  as  formerly  was  the  fact. 
To  this  there  are  several  objections ;  but  one,  which  is  all-suffi- 
cient, is  enough  to  name :  the  large  number  who  ought  to  be 
taught,  and  in  various  things,  cannot  be  reached  by  such  a  mode 
of  procedure.  This  studio  instruction,  excellent  in  many  points, 
was  essentially  an  apprenticeship  under  the  old  masters.  Now 
the  times  have  so  changed  that  apprenticeship  has,  in  obedience  to 
natural  causes,  nearly  or  quite  disappeared  from  all  industries. 
In  a  similar  manner,  to  meet  the  rapidly  increasing  and  varied 
demands  for  art-instruction,  the  school  must,  in  the  main,  sup- 
plant the  private  studio,  doing  the  work  required  better  than  the 
private  studio  can  possibly  do  it.  But,  again,  it  will  be  vehe- 
mently urged  that  art-instruction,  which  is  limited  to  the  things 
that  can  be  taught  with  pedagogical  precision,  will  never  produce 
a  genuine  artist ;  that  there  must  be  a  certain  something  which  a 
student  can  obtain  only  by  working  under  a  great  master.  It  is 
indeed  true  that  a  knowledge  of  the  precise  and  teachable  features 
of  art  is  far  from  enough  for  the  making  of  a  genuine  artist ;  but 
it  is  also  true  that  there  can  be  no  genuine  artist  who  has  not  this 
knowledge,  which  is  all  that  even  the  greatest  master  can  impart. 


•  AMERICAN  PREFA  CE.  xlix 

The  power  which  a  great  artist  displays  in  handling  the  teachable 
elements  of  art,  and  in  producing  his  wonderful  results,  he  cannot 
impart  to  any  one:  that  is  something  which  must  "  exist  in  the 
man,  in  the  subject,  and  in  the  occasion,"  as  Webster  said  of  true 
eloquence.  The  great  artist  is  distinguished,  not  for  disregard  of 
the  precise  and  teachable  principles  of  art,  but  for  his  power,  for 
his  genius,  in  using  them ;  and  that  is  something  he  cannot  confer 
upon  another  by  teaching,  not  even  if  he  were  no  less  a  teacher 
than  artist.  A  great  master  may,  indeed,  impress  upon  the  work 
of  his  students,  especially  if  they  possess  inferior  powers,  some  of 
his  own  characteristics,  making  of  his  students  imitators,  and  thus 
founding  a  "  school."  This,  however,  is  not  true  teaching,  since  its 
result  is  imitative,  and  not  rational.  An  art-student  should,  upon 
leaving  his  instructor,. be  so  well  grounded  in  the  rationale  of  his 
art,  that  he  can  pursue  an  independent  course.  With  this  power 
the  students  who  studied  under  Agassiz  left  their  instructor ; 
hence  they  are  turning  out  Darwinians,  though  Agassiz  himself 
fought  Darwinism  to  the  last.  It  is  not  mere  reproduction 
of  the  past  that  we  want  either  in  science  or  art,  but  a  rational 
use  of  what  we  have  received  from  the  past.  As  we  increase  our 
knowledge  of  the  poetic  art  and  our  taste  for  poetry  by  reading 
Homer,  Milton,  Shakspeare,  and  do  not  care  to  have  them  fur- 
ther than  this  for  teachers  ;  so  the  main  advantage  to  be  derived 
from  great  artists  must  come  through  a  stud}'  of  their  works, 
which  can  be  collected  in  art  schools,  galleries,  and  museums.  In 
this  way  they  can  teach,  silently,  most  invaluable  lessons.  Yet  it 
is  not  an  attempted  reproduction  of  these  we  want.  Indeed,  we 
want  the  art  of  no  man.  no  country,  no  age  ;  even  if  we  did,  we 
could  not  obtain  it  in  its  essence.  What  specially  characterizes 
the  art  of  any  man,  country,  age,  being  a  natural  growth,  the  pro- 
duct of  special  circumstances,  and  not  an  artificial  creation,  is  not, 
in  its  essence,  transferable ;  and  the  attempt  to  transfer  always 
results  in  pinchbeck  imitation.  This  fact  they  will  discover  who 
talk  so  loudly  about  French  art,  and  so  vehemently  urge  its  culti- 
vation in  this  country.  Whatever  there  is  generic  and  teachable 
about  French  art  belongs  to  all  art  and  to  human  nature  ;  that  we 
want :  whatever  specially  characterizes  French  art,  being  the  pro- 
duct of  French  life,  will  always  remain  French  and  untransferable. 


1  AMERICAN  PREFACE.  . 

We  do  not  want  that :  we  want  an  art  of  our  own,  and  we  shall 
surety  have  it  one  da}r,  as  fine  as  the  world  has  yet  seen,  original, 
springing  in  its  characteristic  essence  from  the  soil,  from  American 
civilization.  Like  all  good  art  it  will  be  rational,  not  a  caprice, 
not  a  trick ;  it  will  be  founded  on  those  general  principles  which 
are  teachable,  which  underlie  all  art,  which  can  be  learned  by  the 
people,  and  when  learned  will  enable  them,  if  not  to  produce 
great  original  works,  at  least  to  comprehend  and  enjoy  the  highest 
achievements  in  art. 


\ 


MODERN  ART  EDUCATION. 


CONTENTS. 


PAGE 

INTRODUCTION  * 5 

AUSTRIA 9 

HUNGARY 28 

GERMANY : — 

INTRODUCTION 33 

BAVARIA 36 

WURTEMBERG 50 

BADEN 60 

PRUSSIA 60 

SAXONY 72 

HESSIA 77 

HAMBURG 79 

FRANCE 85 

ITALY 108 

ENGLAND 119 

RUSSIA 127 

SWITZERLAND 134 

THE  NETHERLANDS  AND  BELGIUM 140 

SWEDEN  AND  NORWAY 145 

DENMARK  150 

SPAIN  AND  PORTUGAL 151 

AMERICA  .       .  157 


INTRODUCTION. 


THE  universal  importance  of  instruction  in  drawing  was  not  fully  recog- 
nized until  the  products  of  the  arts  and  industries  of  the  various  nations 
met  each  other  at  the  World's  Fairs.  It  then  became  evident,  that  most 
raw  materials  receive  their  value  in  social  interchange  through  form 
only ;  and  that  therefore  the  education  of  form,  according  to  gesthetic  prin- 
ciples, is  the  first  condition  for  the  successful  development  of  industry,  as 
well  as  for  the  elevation  of  taste  in  general.  The  first  powerful  impetus 
toward  a  reform  in  art-instruction  was  given  at  the  London  Exhibition 
of  1851,  where  the  products  of  industry  from  all  parts  of  the  world  were 
brought  together  for  the  first  time  in  an  international  tournament ;  and 
England  herself  then  proceeded,  through  the  instrumentality  of  drawing- 
schools,  to  regulate  taste,  which  had  long  been  subject  to  caprice,  in 
accordance  with  scientific  maxims ;  to  introduce  uniformity  into  the 
treatment  of  the  matter  of  form,  and  to  give  to  its  development  a  basis 
resting  upon  aesthetic  principles.  The  industry  of  France,  which  until  then 
had  proceeded  without  principle  in  the  matter  of  style,  allowing  itself  to 
be  swayed  by  external  influences,  and  dazzling  rather  by  the  brilliancy 
of  its  manual  dexterity  than  by  virtue  of  its  positive  artistic  merits, 
presently  found  that  it  must  also  enter  into  this  reform,  if  it  did  not 
wish  to  see  its  productions  seriously  endangered  in  the  markets  of  the 
world.  For  the  example* set  by  England  was  followed  by  Austria,  by 
Germany,  in  part  at  least,  quite  lately  also  by  Russia ;  and  everywhere 
these  efforts  were  accompanied  by  the  best  results.  And,  simultaneously 
with  the  growth  of  art-instruction  during  the  last  decades,  art-science l 

1  Art-Science,  the  German  "  Kunstwissenschaft,"  is  a  word  which  has 
hardly  been  naturalized  as  yet  in  the  English  language.  It  embraces  all  that 
may  be  known  respecting  art,'— its  history  and  its  philosophy,  as  well  as  its 
technical  detail.  Art-science,  which  is  a  creation  of  modern  times,  seeks  to 
impart  to  the  study  of  art  as  much  of  the  method  of  the  exact  sciences,  as  the 
nature  of  the  case  will  permit.  It  therefore  proceeds  empirically;  and  its 
activity,  in  searching  through  archives  to  obtain  documentary  evidence  con- 

5 


6  INTRODUCTION. 

likewise  expanded  its  wings  more  and  more  powerfully,  and  contributed 
not  a  little  towards  the  elucidation  of  the  aesthetic  conceptions  of  our 
time. 

The  world  followed  this  revolution  in  industry  with  increasing  interest, 
at  the  subsequent  exhibitions  which  have  been  held  in  the  course  of  the 
past  twenty  years  at  Paris  and  at  London  ;  but  on  these  occasions  criti- 
cism was  compelled  to  judge  by  results  only,  as  the  causes  of  the  revolution, 
which  are  to  be  found  in  instruction,  could  not  be  investigated,  for  want 
of  the  necessary  material.  This  demand  was,  however,  fully  satisfied  by 
the  World's  Fair  of  1873;  as  nearly  all  the  states  represented  in  the 
domain  of  industry  were  also  represented  in  the  department  of  art-educa- 
tion, and  each  state  had  endeavored  to  illustrate  the  efforts  it  is  mak- 
ing in  this  direction. 

In  working  up  the  vast  material  displayed  by  the  various  countries 
in  the  shape  of  specimens  by  the  pupils,  aids  for  teaching,  &c.,  the 
reporter  found  himself  compelled  to  notice  also  the  achievements  of 
industry  as  forming  the  actual  starting-point  of  the  efforts  under  re- 
view ;  and  he  believes  himself  to  be  all  the  more  justified  in  this  trans- 
gression of  the  limits  of  his  department,  as  it  presented  the  only  way 
by  which  a  correct  judgment  on  the  subject  of  instruction  could  be 
arrived  at. 

By  far  the  greater  part  of  the  objects  exhibited  in  the  section  allotted 
to  the  reporter  had  reference  to  art-industrial  instruction.  The  rest 
pertained  to  the  general  schools  in  which  art-instruction  ought  to  be 
made  an  integral  part  of  general  education,  and  drawing  should  be  used 
to  awaken  the  aesthetic  feeling  more  universally  than  heretofore.  As 
this  problem  is  still  everywhere  waiting  for  its  positive  solution,  and  as 
our  own  time,  more  than  any  other,  is  strenuously  at  work  upon  its  elu- 
cidation, the  reporter  has  endeavored,  as  far  as  possible,  to  show  the 
present  position  of  this  branch  of  instruction  in  the  various  countries. 
Next  to  the  laws,  enactments,  &c.,  concerning  the  subject,  he  has  there- 
fore directed  his  attention  principally  to  th.£  forms  and  the  methods 
employed  in  its  study.  A  short  characterization  of  the  copies,  models, 
&c,,  in  use  may  serve  to  complete  the  picture. 

The  reporter  believes  it  unnecessary  to  call  attention  to  the  fact,  that 

cerning  the  lives  and  the  works  of  the  artists  of  the  past,  has  been  marvellous, 
especially  of  late  years.  It  also  lays  great  stress  upon  the  comparative  study 
of  art,  and  has  therefore  been  of  great  service  in  the  elucidation  of  the  ques- 
tion of  style,  not  only  in  its  application  to  nations  and  periods,  but  also  to 
individual  artists.  Its  ultimate  aim  must  of  course  be,  to  deduce  those 
general  laws,  which  will  enable  us  to  comprehend  art  in  its  essence  and  in  its 
historical  development. —  Transl. 


INTRODUCTION.  1 

his  department,  looked  upon  from  the  point  of  view  just  designated,  is 
one  of  vast  extent ;  and  he  must  ask  indulgence,  if  here  and  there  he 
has  not  done  justice  to  his  task.  As  it  was  frequently  impossible  to 
obtain  other  than  insufficient  information  concerning  the  deficiencies  of 
the  Exhibition,  he  must  also  be  excused  if  some  parts  of  the  report  should 
appear  to  be  more  broadly  treated  than  others. 

The  remark  already  made  in  other  reports  must  be  repeated  here : 
viz.,  that  the  enormous  dispersion  "of  the  materials  rendered  the  task 
infinitely  more  difficult.  The  character  of  Groups  XII.  and  XXV.1  fre- 
quently caused  a  dismemberment  of  objects  of  Group  XXVI.,2  which 
ought  to  have  been  together,  thus  frustrating  the  coup-d'ceil ;  and,  in 
matters  of  education,  there  were  added  to  this  difficulty  the  separate 
exhibitions  in  the  schoolhouses,  where  fragments  of  the  various  aids  for 
teaching  had  likewise  to  be  looked  for.  Nevertheless,  the  reporter 
believes  that  he  has  recorded  many  things  which  may  in  future  be  of 
value  to  the  highly  important  subject  of  education. 

It  is  self-evident  that  the  great  industrial  powers,  such  as  France, 
Germany,  Austria,  England,  and  Italy,  had  to  receive  a  more  detailed 
treatment  than  the  other  countries,  in  which  the  efforts  in  question  are 
of  less  importance.  If,  as  far  as  Germany,  and  especially  France,  are 
concerned,  the  past  has  been  drawn  upon  to  a  greater  extent  than  the 
programme  of  the  "  Official  Report "  seemed  to  demand,  this  may  be 
justified  by  the  fact,  that  there  was  a  defect  in  this  respect  in  the  dis- 
cussion of  our  subject  in  the  reports  on  former  World's  Fairs;  and  that 
it  appears  important,  in  view  of  the  current  of  the  present  day,  to 
throw  some  light  upon  the  sources  of  the  traditional  elements  of  art- 
industry. 

1  Group  XII.  embraced  "Graphic  Arts  and  Industrial  Drawing;"  Group 
XXV.,  "  Works  of  the  Fine  Arts  of  the  Present  Time." 

2  Group  XXVI.  —  "Education,  Teaching,  and  Instruction. "  —  Transl. 


ART   EDUCATION. 


AUSTRIA. 

WHOEVER  compared  the  results  of  instruction  in  drawing  in 
the  Austrian  People's  and  Middle  Schools,  with  those  attained 
in  the  schools  of  a  similar  category  in  other  countries,  was 
forced  to  admit,  that,  on  the  whole,  this  subject  is  cultivated  much 
more  carefully  and  much  more  successfully  in  Austria  than  else- 
where. Even  in  the  relatively  short  time  which  has  elapsed 
since  its  introduction  into  the  scheme  of  education,  the  methods 
of  teaching  have  very  generally  shaped  themselves  in  accordance 
with  a  uniform  principle  deduced  from  experience;  and  it  was 
noticeable,  that  those  schools  took  the  lead,  and  shone  as  models 
before  all  others,  which  have  the  advantage  of  superior  teachers, 
who  perceive  drawing  to  be  an  integral  part  of  general  education. 

Drawing  in  the  Austrian  schools,  like  every  thing  that  is  new, 
had  to  pass  through  the  phases  of  childhood,  had  to  become  nat- 
uralized among  the  existing  subjects  of  stud}r,  and  had  to  overcome 
prejudices,  and  to  struggle  against  a  number  of  other  difficulties, 
before  it  succeeded  in  gaining  a  solid  basis  upon  which  to  erect  a 
superstructure  of  well-defined  proportions.  Art-science,  industry, 
and  instruction  in  drawing,  have  almost  kept  pace  with  each  other 
in  their  development  in  Austria  (where  Vienna  is  looked  upon  as 
a  common  centre),  since  about  the  year  1850.  Industry  demanded 
forms,  art-science  pointed  them  out,  and  drawing  stepped  in  as  a 
bridge,  as  a  connecting  link  between  the  two.  The  reform  for 
which  taste  was  prepared  by  these  agents  could  only  be  accom- 
plished by  the  aid  of  the  drawing-classes ;  and  as  the  industries 

9 


10  ART  EDUCATION. 

demanded  this  reform  on  the  one  side,  while  art-science  endeavored 
to  carry  it  through  on  the  other,  drawing  necessarily  became  the 
central  point  of  the  theoretical,  as  well  as  of  the  practical  elements 
of  art-education.  With  the  international  combats  which  took 
place  at  short  intervals  in  the  arenas  of  the  World's  Fairs,  between 
the  products  of  art,  of  industry,  and  of  education,  the  factors 
from  whose  co-operation  true  progress  can  alone  be  expected, 
approached  nearer  and  nearer  to  each  other,  and  the  current  in- 
creased in  rapidity.  What  Austria  mostly  stood  in  need  of  was  a 
common  centre  for  the  reformatory  movement.  England  secured 
such  a  centre  in  its  South  Kensington  Museum,  with  the  Art-School 
attached  to  it ;  the  principal  cities  of  France  and  of  Germany  are 
struggling  to  attain  the  same  end ;  Russia  reached  it  when  she 
established  her  Museums  and  Art-Schools  at  Moscow  and  at  St. 
Petersburg ;  and  Austria  has  also  <seen  her  wishes  realized  by 
the  establishment  of  the  "  Museum  of  Art  and  Industry  "  at 
Vienna. 

With  the  improvement  of  educational  matters  in  general,  which 
has  been  effected  in  Austria  within  the  last  ten  j^ears,  drawing  in  the 
schools  for  general  education  has  gradually  been  brought  nearer  to 
its  real  destination  ;  and  in  this  respect  Austria  had  the  advantage 
of  other  states,  as  the  subject  had  always  been  compulsory  in  her 
Real-Schools.1  For,  although  these  schools  had  formerly  aimed 
principally  at  technical  education,  drawing  had  obtained  a  sound 
basis  in  them,  and  the  methods  of  teaching  had  had  time  to  define 
themselves  in  the  course  of  a  number  of  years.  On  the  part  of 
art-science,  the  higher  importance  of  instruction  in  drawing  was 
also  urged  with  constantly  increasing  emphasis.  It  was  contended, 
that  it  must  not  only  serve  technical  and  industrial  interests, 
but  that  it  has  a  greater  mission,  the  education,  namely,  of  our 
younger  generation  to  the  understanding  of  the  language  of  form 
in  general ;  the  unlocking  of  their  e}res  to  the  beautiful  in  art  and 
in  nature  ;  and,  as  a  consequence,  the  cultivation  of  the  intellect, 
and  the  purification  of  taste.  The  establishment  of  the  Real- 

1  Real-Schools  are  so  called  because  they  are  intended  to  teach  the  "  Reali- 
ties," i.e.,  practical  science  and  modern  languages,  which  enter  into  the  real 
uses  of  practical  life.  The  "Gymnasia,"  on  the  contrary,  are  principally 
devoted  to  classical  philology,  and  are  simply  preparatory  schools  for  the 
universities.  —  Transl. 


AUSTRIA.  11 

Gymnasia,1  in  which  this  humanistic  aspect  of  drawing  was  des- 
tined to  receive  a  more  prominent  recognition,  thrust  the  question 
further  into  the  foreground;  and  the  Real-Schools  likewise  de- 
manded its  solution,  when  their  re-organization  in  favor  of  the 
humanistic  branches  was  effected  in  1870. 

According  to  a  proverb,  all  roads  lead  to  Rome,  and  whoever  is 
clearly  conscious  of  his  aim  will  reach  it  sooner  or  later.  This 
winged  word  is  most  frequently  made  use  of  in  art,  in  which, 
indeed,  the  individual  element  is  generally  more  prominent  than 
elsewhere,  although  one  common  aim  is  striven  for  by  all,  i.e., 
truth.  It  is  different,  however,  with  systematic  art-instruction  in 
schools ;  certain  well-defined  tendencies  are  to  be  realized  here, . 
and  fixed  standards  are  therefore  an  absolute  pedagogical 
necessity.  Not  artists,  in  the  proper  sense  of  the  word,  are  to  be 
educated,  but  trained  thinkers,  who  shall  have  the  faculty  of  con- 
ceiving not  only  in  time,  but  also  in  space  ;  and  who,  by  practi- 
cing art,  are  to  be  fitted  to  understand  art.  In  shaping  the  laws 
upon  this  subject,  experience  has  always  made  its  influence  felt  in 
Austria  ;  and,  in  reviewing  these  laws  from  about  the  year  1850  to 
the  present  time,  we  can  see  the  plans  of  instruction  becoming 
gradually  more  definite,  and  we  can  trace  the  efforts  that  were 
made  to  introduce  unity  into  the  methods  of  teaching.  The  last 
enactment  on  this  subject  is  dated  Sept.  1,  1873,  and  contains  the 
detailed  plan  of  instruction  for  freehand  drawing  in  the  People's 
and  Middle  Schools  in  accordance  with  the  tendencies  above  speci- 
fied.2 As  the  main  stress  in  this  enactment  is  laid  upon  drawing 
from  plastic  models,  it  must  now  be  the  concern  of  the  government 
to  provide  the  schools  with  the  apparatus  necessary  for  this  mode 
of  instruction,  —  a  point  which  was  also  emphasized  by  the  "  Art- 
Scientific  Congress. '  '8  The  experience  which  has  lately  been  gained 

1  Real-Gymnasia  are  a  combination  of  the  Real-School  and  of  the  Gymna- 
sium.   The  lower  classes  are  common  to  all  the  pupils;  but  in  the  upper 
classes  a  bifurcation  takes  place,  one  branch  following  up  the  aims  of  the 
"Real-School,"  the  other  those  of  the  "Gymnasium."  —  Transl. 

2  Compare  the  report  of  the  Ministry  of   Education  on   the  collective 
exhibition  of  Austrian  education,  p.  409,  et  seq. 

8  The  Art-Scientific  Congress  met  at  Vienna  in  the  early  part  of  September, 
1873,  and  was  attended  by  about  seventy  delegates  from  Germany,  Austria, 
Hungary,  Italy,  Belgium,  Switzerland,  Spain,  and  England.  After  an  address 
of  welcome  by  the  Austrian  Minister  of  Education,  v.  Stremayr,  the  meeting 


12  ART  EDUCATION. 

at  the  World's  Fair  in  regard  to  art-instruction  will  no  doubt  be 
conducive  to  the  propagation  of  correct  principles.  And  the 
reporter  must  here  beg  to  be  allowed  to  define,  in  rapid  outlines, 
the  point  of  view  to  which  he  has  attained  by  his  own  pedagogical 
experience,  and  by  the  insight  into  the  results  of  the  various 
educational  institutions  represented  at  the  Exhibition. 

The  world,  as  far  as  it  is  concerned  in  drawing,  is  probably 
unanimous  in  the  conviction,  that  instruction  in  itsjirst  stages  must 
begin  with  geometrical  forms,  and  that  ornament  must  be  practiced  to 
a  certain  degree,  before  figure-drawing  can  be  taken  up.  Differences 
of  opinion  have  reference  to  the  method  only  ;  i.e. :  How  shall  the 
several  parts  be  taught  ?  what  .shall  be  their  proportion  ?  and  what 
models  shall  be  employed  ?  The  ornament,  as  long  as  it  remains 
ornament  in  the  truest  sense  of  the  word,  and  does  not  go  astra}^ 
among  the  variable  forms  of  nature,  as  it  did  during  the  Baroque 
epoch,  always  constructs  itself  according  to  a  certain  rhythmical 
measure,  which  gives  law  to  the  form.  The  characteristics  of  the 
various  styles  lie  in  the  nature  of  this  rhythmical  development,  in 
the  peculiarity  of  the  growth  of  the  ornament,  as  it  were  ;  and  it 
is  therefore  an  inevitable  necessity  in  instruction,  if  the  pupil  is  to 
receive  an  insight  into  the  organism  of  this  world  of  form,  that  the 
teacher  himself  should  develop  the  forms,  i.e.,  that  he  should  draw 
them  on  the  blackboard  before  the  class.  But  b}'no  means  must  the 
welfare  of  aesthetic  education  be  sought  in  the  mere  knowledge  of 
all  the  existing  styles  of  ornament.  General  culture  will  demand 
this  knowledge  ;  but  the  development  and  perfection  of  aesthetic  cul- 
ture can  only  be  induced  by  the  study  of  the  best  thus  far  pro- 
duced by  the  nations  of  the  globe ;  and  in  the  choice  of  examples 
for  educational  purposes  the  Grecian,  Roman,  and  Renaissance 
monuments  will  claim  attention  above  all  others.  Besides  these, 
however,  nature,  as  the  source  of  all  ornamental  forms,  must 
likewise  be  considered. 

But  as  ornament,  although  not  a  lifeless,  is  still  a  soulless  forma- 
tion, and  its  study  in  schools  for  general  education  can  only  be 

organized  by  the  election  of  Prof.  R.  v.  Eitelberger  as  president ;  Messrs.  J.  A. 
Crowe  (joint-author  with  G.  B.  Cavalcaselle  of  the  "History  of  Painting  in 
Italy")  and  Schon,  as  vice-presidents;  and  Prof.  Bruno  Meyer  and  A.  Ilg  as 
secretaries.  The  meeting  was  the  first  of  its  kind  ever  held;  a  second  meet- 
ing will  occur  at  Berlin,  in  September,  1875.— Tmnsl. 


AUSTRIA.  13 

looked  upon  as  a  technical  preparation  for  the  comprehension  of 
art,  it  follows,  that  the  pupil,  as  soon  as  he  is  able  correctly  to 
reproduce  these  "  Forms  in  Rhythm,"  will  have  to  take  up  the  truly 
educational  study  of  the  more  intellectual  human  form.  Here, 
through  forms,  he  will  make  the  acquaintance  of  souls,  will  learn 
to  distinguish  characters,  and  at  the  same  time  will  become 
familiar  with  art  in  its  masterworks,  while  acquiring  technical 
execution  by  the  study  of  well-chosen  models.  All  the  French 
drawing-copies  lately  published  start  from  this  point  of  view, 
and  our  time  possesses  an  invaluable  aid  in  this  respect,  in  the 
photographic  facsimiles.  The  road  in  figure-drawing  must  lead 
from  the  characteristic,  the  glaring,  the  striking,  to  the  classical 
repose  of  the  antique.  The  forms  of  a  Phidias  would  be  as  little 
in  place  in  the  first  stages  of  figure-drawing,  as  the  works  of 
Sophocles  or  .ZEscl^lus  in  an  elementary  reader.  And  in  those 
schools  where,  in  spite  of  these  truths,  instruction  began  with 
the  antique,  figure-drawing  remained  only  ornamental  drawing 
of  another  kind,  while  a  more  delicate  comprehension  of  the  nature 
of  man,  a  penetration  into  the  soul,  was  made  impossible.  The 
way  for  the  antique  must  be  prepared  by  the  masterpieces  of  the 
fifteenth  and  sixteenth  centuries.  Leonardo's  Apostles,  Raphael's 
heads  from  the  Camera  della  Segnatura,  &c.,  are  models,  which 
in  their  forms  are  more  akin  to  the  imagination  of  j'outh,  be- 
cause the}r  are  creations  pulsating  with  life.  It  belongs  to  a 
higher  stage  of  development  to  comprehend  the  beauty  of  the 
Zeus  Otricoli.  Although  anatomists  and  artists,  in  times  gone  by, 
have  repeatedly  endeavored  to  construct  the  human  figure  accord- 
ing to  a  definite  canon,  and  to  create  an  ideal  of  proportions  which 
might  serve  as  a  basis  for  aesthetic  conceptions,  art  has  never  con- 
sented to  accept  these  theories,  nor  must  they  be  accepted  for 
instruction.  If  proportions  are  to  be  spoken  of  in  figure-drawing, 
they  must  be  confined  solely  to  the  laws  of  growth  of  the  bones, 
to  the  definite  anatomical  principles,  in  which  modern  investiga- 
tions in  this  science  have  given  such  beautiful  results  for  art ;  but 
all  shallow  general  receipts,  which  are  at  variance  with  the  laws  of 
nature,  must  be  kept  away.  Indeed,  nature  still  infolds  many 
secrets  in  her  variations,  which  cause  the  intellect  to  reflect  in 
3*outh,  at  the  time  when  impressions  are  most  vivid,  and  recep- 
tivity is  at  its  height. 


14  ART  EDUCATION. 

The  real  purpose  of  figure-drawing  in  all  its  stages  will  there- 
fore be,  to  learn  how  to  perceive  the  intellectually  individual  in  the 
forms  of  nature.  To  no  teacher  in  any  other  branch  is  it  given  in 
the  same  measure  as  to  the  drawing-teacher  to  occupy  himself 
with  each  one  of  his  pupils  individually.  The  weaker  pupil  of 
slower  progress  can  be  brought  up  to  the  aim  quite  as  correctly, 
pedagogically,  as  the  one  of  more  talent ;  since  that  which  is  to 
be  taught,  as  soon  as  the  hand  of  the  pupil  has  attained  to  free- 
dom by  elementary  ornamental  drawing,  lies  in  the  finished  exam- 
ples, and  the  exposition  by  the  teacher  accompanies  the  correction. 
Here  he  can  be  guided  by  the  individuality  of  the  pupil,  and  can 
at  the  same  time  pay  due  attention  to  aesthetic  and  art-scientific 
interests. 

The  reporter  believes  himself  justified  in  referring  to  the  report 
made  by  Prof.  Prandauer  and  Councillor  E.  Walser  to  the  Austrian 
Ministry  of  Education,1  as  far  as  the  review  of  the  work  done  by 
the  pupils  of  the  People's,  Citizens',  and  Middle  Schools  is  con- 
cerned, as  in  the  main  a  repetition  only  could  here  be  given.  A 
short  sketch  of  the  observations  made  may  suffice  to  convey  an 
idea  of  the  general  character  of  the  specimens  exhibited. 

Very  correct  principles  are  generally  followed  in  the  People's 
Schools ;  and,  besides  the  Vienna  schools,  some  of  those  of  the 
larger  provincial  towns  had  sent  specimens  which  were  models  of 
their  kind.  The  fact  that  the  "  making  of  pretty  pictures  "  is  still 
in  vogue  here  and  there  (principally  in  Styria  and  farther  South) , 
is  only  owing  to  the  want  of  capable  teachers,  having  the  neces- 
sary preparation  in  drawing.  These  evils  are  best  corrected  by  the 
introduction  of  stigmographic  copies,2  which  have  done  very  good 
service  in  a  large  part  of  the  People's  Schools  of  Bohemia,  under 
the  charge  of  teachers  totally  ignorant  of  drawing.  Efforts  to  carry 
through  the  only  system  recognized  as  correct  in  the  first  stages 
of  instruction  —  i.  e.,  that  passing  from  straight-line  ornamental 
figures,  to  freehand  outline  ornament  —  are  most  satisfactorily 
apparent  everywhere  ;  and  the  activity  which  the  Austrian  teachers 

1  Vol.  ii.  p.  127,  et  seq.,  and  p.  405,  et  seq. 

2  Stiymoyraphic  copies  are  those  in  which  the  leading  points  of  the  figure  to 
he  drawn  are  indicated  by  dots,  between  which  the  lines  are  tilled  in  by  the 
pupil.  —  Transl. 


AUSTRIA.  15 

have  developed  in  producing  the  requisite  copies,  deserves  honora- 
ble mention.  Numerous  works  following  the  correct  principle, 
and  therefore  showing  but  unimportant  differences,  were  exhibited 
in  the  shape  of  unpublished  drawings,  alongside  of  others  already 
published.  In  the  first  stages  of  instruction  the  stigmographic 
method  is  frequently  employed  with  good  success. 

In  the  Citizens*  Schools  drawing  is  earned  on  less  uniformly,  and 
the  choice  of  examples  in  some  of  these  institutions,  especially  in 
Bohemia,  is  to  be  censured ;  on  the  contrary,  the  Moravian,  Sile- 
sian,  and  Austrian  schools  of  this  class  exhibited  mostly  good 
work. 

In  the  Training-Schools  for  Teachers,  where  stress  must  be  laid 
above  all  upon  outline  ornament,  and  where  blackboard-drawing 
in  this  branch  must  be  practiced,  due  attention  is  generally  paid 
to  these  requirements  ;  but  old  copies  of  ornaments  without  defi- 
nite style  are  still  frequently  in  use,  and  sometimes  shaded  heads 
are  drawn  from  old  French  examples,  which  tend  to  hinder  the 
study  of  exact  form,  rather  than  to  advance  it.  The  German 
Training  School  for  Teachers,  of  Prague,  exhibited  the  correct 
course  of  instruction  in  a  most  exemplary  manner  by  means  of 
work  done  by  its  pupils. 

Nearly  all  the  Real -Schools  were  represented  by  superior 
specimens,  those  of  Vienna  taking  the  lead.  The  methods  of" 
teaching  are  pretty  much  the  same  everywhere,  showing  only 
minor  differences  which  are  owing  to  the  individualities  of  the 
teachers,  and  frequently  also  to  local  circumstances.  The  better 
of  the  later  French  drawing-copies,  as  well  as  the  models,  &c., 
published  by  the  Austrian  Museum  of  Art  and  Industry,  have 
been  introduced  very  generally.  In  the  Bohemian  Real-Schools, 
which  are  still  organized  according  to  the  old  system,  architectural 
and  topographical  drawing  are  still  carried  on  to  excess.  The 
results  of  freehand  drawing  were  good  on  the  average ;  but  it  was 
remarkable,  that,  for  the  drawings  from  casts  in  two  craj-ons, 
paper  of  much  too  dark  a  color  had  been  chosen  almost  through- 
out, which  allows  only  of  a  hard  and  constrained  rendering  of  the 
forms.  In  the  choice  of  technical  means,  the  French  must  still 
serve  as  models  to  all  the  world. 

Many  of  the  schools,  prominently  among  them  those  of  Prague  r 


16  ART  EDUCATION. 

had  also  made  a  clear  exhibit  of  the  course  of  instruction.  A 
few  of  the  institutions  of  Eastern  and  North-Eastern  Bohemia 
had,  however,  misapprehended  the  purposes  of  the  exhibition,  and 
had  sent  show-pieces,  among  which  the  most  monstrous  mistakes 
were  occasionally  to  be  found  in  regard  to  taste,  and  the  peda- 
gogical training  of  the  feeling  for  forms.  As  a  general  thing, 
ornamental  drawing  is  prosecuted  more  correctly  than  figure-draw- 
ing, a  state  of  affairs  which  is  but  too  often  occasioned  by  the 
absence  of  good  copies.  Outline  studies  of  naturalistic  treatment, 
for  the  first  stages,  through  which  the  pupil  might  gradually  be 
led  towards  the  tempered  beauty  of  the  antique,  are  still  wanting 
everywhere,  as  has  been  observed  before.  The  road  through 
Julien's  "Etudes  d'apres  F  Antique  "  does  not  show  favorable 
results.  The  forms  in  themselves  are  too  insipid  to  be  able  to 
stimulate,  and  the  execution  is  too  mannered  to  be  useful  in  this 
respect.  Execution,  in  figure-drawing  especially,  by  reason  of  the 
great  variety  encountered  in  it,  is  very  difficult  to  acquire  by  empiri- 
cal study,  while  description  alone  can  never  lead  to  its  compre- 
hension. It  is  therefore  doubly  necessary  that  the  best  models 
should  be  provided.  The  success  attained  when  good  drawings 
by  the  teachers,  or  photographs  from  such,  had  been  made  use  of, 
was  often  astonishing.  Thus  far  the  "  Cours  de  Dessin,"  by  Ch. 
Bargue,  second  part,  is  the  best  that  can  be  recommended  for  the 
study  of  execution  in  the  higher  classes. 

In  the  Real-Gymnasia  a  great  variety  is  still  observable  in  in- 
struction in  drawing.  In  the  Viennese  institutions,  the  results 
equal  those  of  the  lower  Real-Schools,  although  there  are  great 
differences  in  regard  to  the  proportions  of  ornamental  and  figure 
drawing. 

In  other  institutions  the  course  of  instruction  of  the  Real- 
Schools  is,  indeed,  adhered  to ;  but,  as  the  subject  is  elective  for  a 
part  of  the  pupils  in  the  higher  classes,  the  system  is  mostly 
dropped,  and  the  more  pleasant  is  preferred  to  the  more  useful. 

Of  the  Industrial  Improvement  Schools,1  the  Viennese  more  espe- 

1  Industrial  Improvement  Schools  ( "  Gewerbliche  Fortbildungsschulen  " )  are 
described  as  follows  in  the  "  Official  Catalogue  of  the  Exhibition  of  the  Ger- 
man Empire,"  at  Vienna:  "  The  Industrial  Improvement  Schools  are  intended 
to  continue  the  education  of  those  of  the  pupils  of  the  People's  and  Heal 


AUSTRIA.  17 

cially  were  represented  by  very  excellent  specimens,  in  drawing  as 
well  as  in  modelling.  They  are  just  now  undergoing  a  reform,  and 
will  probably  be  freed  from  some  of  the  difficulties  by  which  they 
were  beset  until  now.  Through  the  agency  of  the  preparatory 
classes  now  in  course  of  organization,  the  pupils  will  be  bet- 
ter fitted  to  enter  these  schools,  which  will  henceforth  occupy 
the  position  of  higher  classes ;  and  it  is  to  be  hoped  that  the 
irregularity  in  the  attendance,  which  has  frequently  been  com- 
plained of,  will  be  checked  by  suitable  measures  on  the  part  of  the 
authorities. 

Of  the  Industrial  Schools  proper,  only  a  few  were  represented  in 
the  Collective  Exhibition  of  Austrian  Education,  by  specimens 
done  by  their  pupils.  Among  these  the  Building  and  Machine 
Trades  School  of  Vienna,  and  the  Industrial  School  of  Prague, 
were  the  most  prominent.  The  larger  part  of  the  special  schools 
proper,  being  subventioned  by  the  Austrian  Ministry  of  Commerce, 
exhibited  in  the  Pavilion  of  the  Commerce  of  the  "World.  As 
they  were  not  included  in  the  report  of  the  Commission  on  the 
Collective  Exhibition,1  their  achievements  must  receive  a  more 
detailed  treatment  here. 

The  industrial  department  formed  Group  VI.  of  the  Exhibi- 
tion made  by  the  Ministry  of  Commerce  ;  and,  of  the  schools  under 
consideration,  a  map  had  been  prepared  which  showed  their  local 
distribution  throughout  the  Cisleithanian  Crownlands.  By  this 
map  it  became  apparent  that,  so  far,  the  North  of  Bohemia  pos- 


Schools,  who  devote  themselves  to  practical  labor.  The  selection  of  the  sub- 
jects taught  is  entirely  governed  by  local  circumstances.  The  number  of 
teachers  rises  from  a  few  up  to  fifty  in  one  school.  These  teachers  are  partly 
regularly  trained  pedagogues,  partly  specialists,  such  as  engineers,  merchants, 
manufacturers,  or  artisans.  .  .  .  The  hours  of  instruction  of  all  these  schools 
are  outside  of  the  ordinary  working-time  of  the  shops.  The  schools  of  the 
more  important  cities  also  offer  opportunity  to  practice  during  working-time, 
in  schoolrooms  especially  appointed  for  the  purpose,  and  under  the  super- 
vision of  teachers  who  come  and  go  occasionally.  The  attendance  is  volun- 
tary, and  dependent  upon  the  payment  of  a  small  tuition  fee  The  expenses 
of  the  schools  are  borne  one  half  by  the  state,  the  other  half  by  the  com- 
munes." This  description  applies  more  especially  to  the  schools  of  Wurtein- 
berg,  but  will  answer  for  all.  —  Transl 

1  With  the  exception  of  the  Manufacturing  Drawing  School  and  the  Build- 
ing Trades  School  of  F.  Martens  in  Vienna. 
2 


18  ART  EDUCATION. 

sesses  the  most  of  these  institutions,  Silesia  and  Moravia  ranking 
next,  while  throughout  the  other  crownlands  (with  the  exception 
of  Galicia)  their  relative  distribution  is  tolerably  even. 

Tabular  statements,  which  had  also  been  provided,  gave  more 
detailed  information  regarding  the  establishment  of  the  several 
schools,  and  showed,  that,  previous  to  the  year  1872,  there  were 
only  ten  in  the  whole  realm,  —  at  Reichenberg,  Steinschonau,  Vien- 
na, Bielitz,  Briinn,  Aussig,  Haida,  Gablonz,  Hallein,  and  Asch. 

Since  the  year  1872,  there  have  been  established  twenty- three 
new  schools,  —  at  Rumburg,  Graz,  Rietz,  Znaim,  Innsbruck,  Imst, 
St.  Ulrich  (in  the  Grodenthal),  Gablonz,  Hochstadt,  Landskron, 
Rochlitz,  Rothmuhl,  Gmiind,  Tachau,  Walkern,  Mondsee,  Zwit- 
tau,  Hallstadt,  Graslitz,  Schonbach,  Petrowitz,  Carlstein,  and 
Hohenelbe.1 

The  following  is  a  short  sketch  of  the  results  of  the  several 
institutions : — 

School  for  Glass-Industry  at  Steinschonau  (established  1855). — 
In  the  general  school  drawing  is  carried  on  in  three  groups  (or 
stages) ,  as  follows :  Group  I.  Composition  of  ornaments  on  the 
basis  of  geometrical  forms  (linear  drawing)  ;  Group  II.  Compo- 
sition of  ornaments  in  Gothic  style,  to  fill  given  spaces  (leaves 
treated  as  ornaments  with  the  pen)  ;  Group  III.  Renaissance 
ornaments.  In  the  section  for  apprentices,  besides  elementary 
ornaments,  there  are  practiced  flowers  from  French  originals,  and 
the  "  Renaissance  Intarsias  "  published  by  the  Austrian  Museum, 
but  more  especially  forms  of  vessels  (from  various  museums)  ; 
also  figure-drawing  (after  Julien).  In  the  section  for  masters 
and  journeymen,  drawing  is  continued  in  the  same  manner,  and 
most  superior  specimens  were  to  be  seen,  in  drawing  as  well  as  in 
modelling.  The  glass  vessels  exhibited  were  likewise  very  tasty, 
and  gave  evidence  of  a  gradual  abandonment  of  the  old  French 
st}ie,  and  of  a  return  to  the  Renaissance.  In  the  People's  School 
of  the  place,  which  should  prepare  for  the  special  school  in  ele- 
mentary drawing,  the  system  pursued  is  unfortunately  not  the 
correct  one ;  compass  and  ruler  are  employed  in  part,  and  land- 
scape drawing  is  also  cultivated. 

1  A  large  number  of  similar  institutions  will  again  be  opened  in  the  course 
of  the  present  year  (1873). 


AUSTRIA.  19 

The  Drawing  and  Modelling  School  for  Glass-Industry  at 
Haida  (established  in  1870)  exhibited  specimens,  in  drawings  as 
well  as  in  objects  practically  executed  in  glass,  which  were  quite 
superior.  The  institution  certainly  has  great  talent  at  its  command, 
and  it  only  remains  to  be  desired,  that  instruction  should  be  given 
more  systematically.  Unfortunately  ornament  is  again  insufficiently 
cultivated  in  the  lower  classes  of  the  City  School  of  this  place,  and 
landscape  and  flower  drawing  is  taught  from  the  objectionable 
copies  by  Hermes.  The  more  talented  pupils,  will  finally  attain 
to  technical  skill  even  by  this  road ;  but  nevertheless  they  will 
always  remain  more  or  less  of  amateurs,  a  fact  which  was  made 
apparent  even  by  the  more  important  specimens  of  the  apprentices 
and  journeymen  of  the  special  school  under  consideration.  Flow- 
ers are  well  copied  from  French  examples  ;  but  the  correct  under- 
standing of  lights  and  shadows  is  generally  wanting,  as  there  is 
too  little  drawing  from  casts.  Julien's  heads  in  two  crayons  are 
also  in  use,  and  some  of  them  had  been  copied  in  a  truly  brilliant 
style ;  but  the  comprehension  of  form  is  not  advanced  by  them. 
Some  small  heads  in  water-colors  (likewise  from  French  examples) 
were  copied  with  a  great  deal  of  technical  skill.  The  flower- 
pieces,  from  color  prints,  are  also  entitled  to  unstinted  praise,  as 
far  as  the  execution  goes.  The  school  still  adheres  to  French 
taste  ;  it  needs  good  examples  of  modern  tendencies. 

Drawing  and  Modelling  School  for  Clay-Industry  at  Znaim, 
(established  1872).  —  The  institution  is  still  in  embryo,  and  it  is 
very  natural  therefore  that  the  results  were  moderate.  The  course 
of  instruction  and  the  originals  in  use  are  good. 

The  Drawing  and  Modelling  School  for  Glass- Quincaillerie 
(fancy  goods)  at  Gablonz  (established  1870)  was  represented,  on 
the  whole,  by  very  creditable  productions  ;  the  models  and  copies 
in  use  (mostly  from  the  Austrian  Museum)  show  the  modern  ten- 
dencies. There  were  also  pretty  flower  and  landscape  drawings 
(Calame) .  The  only  defect  to  be  noted  relates  to  the  execution  in 
drawing  from  casts  ;  the  drawings,  are  made  with  crayon  on  white 
paper  in  line-manner,  and  figure-drawing  is  taken  up  too  soon. 
The  practical  results  of  the  institution  merit  full  recognition. 
Since  1872  a  special  school  for  the  chemistry  of  glass  has  been 
united  with  it. 


20  ART  EDUCATION. 

TJie  School  for  Wbodcarving  at  Groden  exhibited  ornamental 
carvings,  and  a  "  Christ  on  the  cross,"  perfectly  correct  anatom- 
ically. 

TJie  Training-Shop  for  Wbodcarving  (of  Sebastian  Steiner)  in 
Innsbruck  (established  1872)  was  represented  by  ornamental  pieces 
—  animals  and  smaller  figures  —  which  left  nothing  to  be  desired 
in  the  technical  mastery  of  the  material,  but  were  treated  entirely 
in  the  traditional  Swiss  style. 

Training-Shop  for  Wood- Industry  in  Imst  (established  1872). — 
The  effort  to  attain  style  is  perceptible  in  the  ornaments,  but  the 
forms  are  somewhat  heavy  and  flat.  Very  pretty  figure-studies 
were  shown  ;  and  it  is  worthy  of  praise,  that  antique  models  have 
been  selected. 

The  Woodcarvmg  School  at  Mondsee,  and  the  Special  School  for 
Woodcarvmg  and  for  Marble- Industry  at  Hallstadt,  are  young 
institutions  as  yet,  and  must  for  the  present  cultivate  elementary 
drawing,  of  which  very  respectable  results  indeed  were  shown. 

In  the  Woodcarving  School  at  Hallein  (established  1871)  draw- 
ing is  taught  in  two  divisions  ;  ornament  (according  to  Herdtle  and 
Taubinger1)  being  treated  in  Class  I.,  while  in  Class  II.  it  is  con- 
tinued in  light  and  shade  from  simple  plaster  models.  In  the  shad- 
ing the  necessary  technical  knowledge  is  wanting  ;  the  modelling 
is  quite  pretty.  In  the  woodcarvings  the  naturalistic  Swiss  style 
indeed  still  prevails,  but  a  tendency  towards  more  clearly  defined 
(Renaissance)  forms  is  alread}^  perceptible  here  and  there. 

The  drawings  of  the  Woodcarving  School  at  Gmund  exhibited 
very  pretty  results  in  part ;  but  they  allowed  no  insight  into  the 
method  of  teaching,  as  the  most  imperfect  productions  were  to  be 
seen  directly  alongside  of  the  perfect. 

The  Woodcarvmg  School  at  Wallern  (Bohemia) ,  opened  only  in 
Januar}*,  1873,  gave  evidence,  in  the  work  of  its  pupils,  that  the 
true  method  in  drawing  is  there  followed.  The  ornaments  with 
the  pencil  and  the  pen  were  correctly  and  neatly  executed ;  the 
linear  drawings  were  somewhat  weaker. 

The  School  for  Wood-Industry  at    Tachau  likewise   exhibited 

1  Herdtle  and  Taubinger.—  Of  the  drawing-copies  here  alluded  to,  those  by 
E.  Herdtle  enjoy  a  very  excellent  reputation  all  over  Germany.  Further 
information  concerning  them  will  be  found  under  "  Wurteiriberg." —  Transl. 


AUSTRIA.  21 

neatly-drawn  ornaments  and  flowers,  as  well  as  diligently  executed 
models  of  constructions  in  wood. 

The  Higher  Weaving -School  at  Gumpendorf  (Vienna)  had  illus- 
trated its  course  of  instruction  very  comprehensively  in  the  pro- 
ductions of  its  pupils.  The  drawings,  all  of  them  designs  for 
textile  fabrics,  &c.,  invariably  exhibited  also  the  manner  in  which 
the  design  must  be  put  upon  the  loom. 

The  Women1  s  Industry -Association  of  Vienna  exhibited  astonish- 
ing specimens.  They  consisted  of  flat  ornaments  and  flowers  in 
color,  some  of  the  latter,  in  bod3r-colors,  exhibiting  a  virtuosity 
and  a  boldness  in  the  handling,  hardly  to  be  looked  for  from  the 
hands  of  girls. 

The  Higher  Building  Trades  School  of  Ferd.  Martens,  at  Vienna, 
is  intended  to  provide  the  facilities  for  special  training  for  the  mass 
of  even  the  poorer  classes,  and  of  those  whose  circumstances  have 
left  them  with  an  insufficient  preparation,  but  who  ma}"  still  desire 
to  improve  themselves.  Corresponding  to  its  character  as  a 
special  school,  only  those  branches  are  taught  in  it  which  are 
directly  conducive  to  its  aim,  i.e.,  the  education  of  efficient  master- 
masons,  foremen,  clerks  of  works,  &c.  The  institution  consists 
of  a  preparatory  school,  and  three  special  schools,  one  for  masons, 
another  for  stonecutters,  a  third  for  carpenters.  It  was  originally 
supported  by  private  means ;  but  in  consequence  of  its  success, 
and  to  further  its  development,  it  was  subventioned  by  the  com- 
mune in  1868,  and  in  1872  also  by  the  state.  Since  then  the 
school  has  advanced  very  satisfactorily,  the  number  of  pupils 
increasing  steadily  ;  and  it  has  also  been  perfected  in  various  direc- 
tions, as  regards  the  necessary  auxiliary  sciences.  The  results 
which  were  exhibited  gave  renewed  evidence  that  this  well-managed 
institution  deserves  the  celebrity  it  has  enjoyed  for  years. 

The  Viennese  /Special  School  for  WcUchmakers  deserves  mention 
for  its  neat  linear  drawings.  Besides  these  specimens,  the  insti- 
tution exhibited  only  its  admirable  collection  of  wall-charts, 
designed  for  its  particular  field  of  instruction. 

Very  meritorious  results  were  shown  by  the  Mechanical  Train- 
ing-Shop at  Klagenfurth.  The  beginning  is  here  made  with  the 
usual  practice  in  geometrical  drawing,  advancing  gradually  to  sim- 
ple constructions  of  parts  of  machines,  and  from  them  progressing 


22  ART  EDUCATION. 

to  more  complicated  objects.  Neat  little  models  of  machines  are 
likewise  to  be  mentioned  with  praise. 

The  Weaving-School  at  Rumburg  (established  as  late  as  1872) 
exhibited  excellent  results  throughout.  The  numerous  portfolios 
clearly  demonstrated  the  correctness  of  the  course  of  instruction, 
which  begins  with  outline  ornaments  (Herdtle),  and  advances 
gradually  to  complicated  flat  ornaments  in  color.  The  latest  and 
best  copies  are  in  use  in  this  school,  and  special  value  is  attached 
to  the  exact  study  of  the  various  styles.  Linear  drawing  also 
gave  evidence  of  the  best  results. 

The  success  of  the  Moravian  Higher  Weaving- School  at  Brunn 
is  well  known.  In  designing,  Herdtle's  ornaments  and  natural 
flowers  make  the  beginning,  and  are  followed  by  the  study  of  the 
scales  of  color,  nomenclatures,  &c.,  practice  in  designs  with  stripes 
and  mixtures,  flower-painting  in  body-colors  in  specified  tints,  with 
reference  to  their  application  in  printing  or  weaving,  studies  for 
rosettes  and  palmettos  for  damasks,  pattern-making,  &c.  In  the 
higher  classes  there  are  finally  practiced  more  complicated  colored 
ornaments  of  all  styles,  for  the  various  purposes  of  weaving."  It 
need  hardly  be  said,  that  masterly  productions  were  to  be  seen  in  all 
these  branches,  and  that  the  school  decidedly  holds  the  first  rank 
in  its  categoiy  in  Austria.  Mr.  George  Rodel  teaches  in  this  school, 
and  his  original  designs  are  mostly  used  as  copies  by  the  pupils. 
The  same  tried  master  also  exhibited  many  of  his  sketches  for 
textile  fabrics,  together  with  his  published  Schools  of  Orna- 
ment, all  of  which  gave  testimony  of  his  eminent  fitness  for  his 
specialty. 

The  designs  of  J.  Holfelder  for  cloth-printing,  embroidery,  &c., 
must  likewise  be  mentioned  here  ;  they  combine  the  forms  of  the 
Renaissance  with  the  taste  still  existing  in  France. 

Most  of  the  other  schools  exhibited  only  practical  work,  the 
examination  of  which  does  not  belong  to  this  department.  Of 
drawings,  it  remains  only  to  mention  the  achievements  of  the 
Technical  and  Industrial  Museum  at  Cracow,  —  well-drawn  orna- 
ments and  heads  from  casts  (in  crayon  and  in  charcoal) ,  of  bril- 
liant execution,  which  left  hardly  any  thing  to  be -desired  in  the 
of  technical,  artistic  finish. 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  demand  for  Industrial  Drawing-Schools, 


AUSTRIA.  23 

as  has  before  been  mentioned,  is  duly  attended  to  in  Austria,  and 
their  influence  upon  the  various  branches  of  industry  will  undoubt- 
edly soon  make  itself  felt  in  a  gratifying  manner.  The  success 
already  attained  by  Austrian  art-industry  at  the  World's  Fair  can 
only  serve  as  a  stimulus  to  further  exertions. 

The  reporter  finally  begs  to  be  permitted  to  touch  with  a  few 
words  upon  the  activity  and  the  success  of  the  Austrian  Museum 
of  Art  and  Industry,  since  this  institution  may  be  said  to  be  the 
model  of  all  other  industrial  schools,  and  may  be  looked  upon  as  the 
centre  of  art-industrial  instruction  in  Austria.  The  specimens  by  its 
pupils  were  not  exhibited  within  the  enclosure  of  the  World's  Fair, 
but  in  the  building  of  the  Museum  itself.  The  rich  collections  of 
artistic  and  art-industrial  objects  at  the  disposal  of  the  school,  the 
skilful  teachers  emploj'ed  in  it,  together  with  the  abundant  support 
(in  scholarships)  extended  to  the  students,  necessarily  caused  a  rapid 
development  of  the  institution.  The  fact  that  Industrial  and  Art 
Museums  can  only  exercise  their  full  influence  on  the  art-industries 
by  means  of  schools  connected  with  them,  has  everywhere  been 
recognized  of  late ;  and  the  organization  of  our  institution, 
together  with  that  of  the  South  Kensington  Museum,  can  probably 
be  looked  upon  as  models. 

It  is  the  business  of  the  school  to  train  skilled  agents  for  art- 
industiy.  Consequently  those  branches  of  art  which  have  the 
closest  connection  with  industry  are  looked  upon  as  the  principal 
subjects  of  instruction,  and  have  influenced  the  organization  of  the 
school.  These  branches  are:  1,  architecture,  in  its  application 
to  the  ornamentation  of  buildings  ;  2,  sculpture ;  3,  ornamental 
drawing ;  and,  4,  figure  drawing  and  painting,  in  their  relations 
to  art-industry. 

For  such  of  the  aspirants  to  the  special  schools,  whose  education 
is  insufficient,  there  is  a  preparatory  course.  A  series  of  technical 
and  scientific  auxiliary  branches  provide  the  pupils  with  the  varied 
training  which  is  necessary  for  the  successful  pursuit  of  art- 
industry.  Besides  the  regular  pupils,  "hospitants"  are  likewise 
admitted  for  the  completion  of  their  artistic  education. 

The  specimens  exhibited  gave  a  clear  picture  of  the  activity  of 
the  several  schools,  and  of  the  tendencies  in  the  modern  develop- 
ment of  taste.  This  point  will  be  treated  more  fully  in  another 


24  ART  EDUCATION. 

part  of  the  report,  and  we  will  only  mention  here,  that  the  manner 
in  which  the  art-school  proceeds  is  exemplar}'. 

The  preparatory  course  was  represented  by  drawings  from  models 
of  figures  and  ornaments,  and  by  drawings  illustrating  the  sub- 
jects of  style,  of  projection,  and  of  shadows,  as  well  as  perspective 
and  anatomical  drawings.  The  special  school  for  figure-drawing 
exhibited  excellent  studies  from  the  antique  and  from  the  living 
model,  also  studies  of  drapery  (in  various  manners) .  The  school 
for  sculptors  presented  studies  from  the  antique  and  from  the  living 
mtfdel,  together  with  original  sketches.  Charming  designs  by  the 
architectural  school  were  exhibited,  in  connection  with  drawings 
from  existing  art-industrial  objects.  This  section  was  also  bril- 
liant in  its  practical  achievements,  especially  in  furniture,  executed 
by  the  pupils  from  their  own  designs.  The  school  for  ornamental, 
animal,  and  flower  painting  likewise  exhibited  charming  composi- 
tions. Painting  upon  wood  and  porcelain,  and  painting  in  enamel, 
were  represented  by  very  successful  specimens.  The  solutions 
of  definite  problems  (the  written  problems  also  being  given)  for 
sgraffito1  decorations,  &c.,  by  various  pupils,  were  highly  inter- 
esting. 

The  development  of  the  art-school  in  the  department  of  prac- 
tical work  is,  unfortunate!}',  still  too  limited,  as  the  localities  at 
its  disposal  are  too  small ;  and  this  part  of  the  institution,  so 
important  in  its  influence  upon  art-industry,  will  only  be  able  to 
make  itself  felt  to  its  full  extent,  when  the  new  building  will  be 
ready  for  occupancy.  The  study  of  the  various  technical  processes 

1  Sf/rqffito  decorations  being  almost  unknown  in  the  United  States,  a  few 
words  of  explanation  may  appear  excusable.  Sgraffito  derives  its  name  from 
syrafliare,  to  scratch  or  scrape.  A  layer  of  mortar  which  has  been  mixed  with 
some  eoloring-inatter,  to  give  it  a  dark  tint,  is  covered  with  milk  of  lime. 
While  this  upper  layer  is  still  fresh,  a  drawing  is  executed  upon  it  by  means 
of  steel  instruments,  so  that  the  figures  show  either  in  dark  lines  upon 
white  ground,  or  vice  versa.  During  the  Renaissance  this  species  of  decora- 
tion was  frequently  employed  upon  the  walls  of  houses,  especially  in  Upper 
Italy;  and  of  late  years  it  has  again  been  taken  up  in  Germany,  &c.,  for  outside 
mural  decorations.  As  a  specimen  the  Northern  wall  of  the  Polytechnicum 
at  Zurich  may  be  cited,  which  has  been  decorated  by  sgraffitos  from  drawings 
by  Gottfried  Semper.  Further  information,  historical  as  well  as  technical, 
can  be  found  in  Lange  and  Buhlmann,  "  Die  Anweuduug  des  Sgraffito  fiir 
Facaden-Dekoration,"  Miinich,  1867. 


AUSTRIA.  25 

will  then  receive  due  attention,  and  studios  will  be  provided  for 
enamelling,  painting  upon  glass  and  porcelain,  wood-carving,  &c." 
The  second  division  of  the  Exhibition  contained  the  artistic 
publications  of  the  museum,  consisting  of  plaster-casts,  galvano- 
plastic  reproductions,  and  photographs,  and  the  art-scientific  works 
issued  since  its  establishment.1 

1  Art- Industrial  Museums.  —  The  South  Kensington  Museum  which  origin- 
ated in  a  small  way  as  far  back  as  1852,  having  been  the  first  public  institution 
of  its  kind,  has  almost  eclipsed  all  other  efforts  in  the  same  direction ;  and  it 
may  therefore  be  of  interest  to  glance  at  the  kindred  institutions,  especially 
of  Germany,  which  are  rapidly  springing  up  everywhere.  The  conviction  is 
gaining  ground  more  and  more,  that  these  museums  are  an  absolute  necessity, 
if  German  industry  is  to  be  able  to  compete  with  the  industry  of  England  and 
of  France.  That  it  is  still  in  the  rear,  is  freely  acknowledged  by  its  best 
friends ;  and  the  rapid  advances  made  by  Austrian  industry,  since  the  estab- 
lishment of  the  Museum  of  Art  and  Industry  at  Vienna,  have  added  a  new 
stimulus  to  those  which  were  in  operation  before.  The  importance  of  these 
institutions  was  also  fully  recognized  by  the  projectors  of  the  Vienna  World's 
Fair  of  1873.  A  special  group  (XXII.)  was  therefore  organized  at  this  exhibi- 
tion to  show  "  the  various  methods  by  which  the  different  modern  museums  endeav- 
or to  carry  out  the  improvement  of  the  general  taste  of  the  people,  and  the  manner 
in  which  they  promote  the  art-industry  and  public  instruction  of  their  countries." 

The  Museum  of  Art  and  Industry  at  Vienna  was  established  in  1864,  and 
occupied  a  provisional  building,  until  its  present  building  was  completed  in 
1871 ,  on  the  4th  of  November  of  which  year,  the  emperor  of  Austria  performed 
the  ceremony  of  laying  the  last  stone.  The  Museum  is  well  endowed  by  the 
state,  and  has  received  a  considerable  number  of  donations  in  money,  as  well 
as  in  valuable  articles,  from  the  emperor  and  from  private  parties  ;  a  society 
has  also  been  formed  "  for  the  advancement  of  the  Art-Industrial  School  of 
the  Museum,"  whose  principal  aim  it  is  to  provide  scholarships  for  poor  but 
talented  scholars,  irrespective  of  sex,  nationality,  or  religion.  The  activity  of 
the  Museum,  under  the  management  of  its  enthusiastic  director,  Prof.  B.  v. 
Eitelberger,  is  very  great.  Travelling  exhibitions  are  arranged  all  over  Aus- 
tria ;  and  the  regular  lectures  of  the  school  are  supplemented  by  popular 
lectures  given  every  Thursday  evening  during  the  winter,  admission  free. 
The  Museum  is  open  to  the  public,  without  charge,  on  Thursdays,  Fridays, 
Saturdays,  and  Sundays  ;  on  Tuesdays  and  Wednesdays,  an  admission  fee  of 
thirty  kreuzers  (about  twenty  cents)  is  charged.  Artists  and  workingmen, 
however,  as  well  as  others  who  desire  to  use  the  collections  or  the  library  for 
practical  purposes,  are  provided  with  cards,  which  pass  them  free  even  on. 
Tuesdays  and  Wednesdays.  Books  may  be  taken  from  the  library,  by  giving 
a  receipt  for  them.  The  list  of  the  publications  of  the  Museum  is  quite  exten- 
sive, embracing  books,  photographs,  casts,  and  a  monthly  journal  (now  in  its 
tenth  year)  devoted  to  the  interests  of  art  and  art-industry  (subscription  four 
florins,  or  about  $1.00,  a  year).  The  school  connected  with  the  Museum  has 
been  in  very  successful  operation  since  1807. 

The  first  steps  towards  the  establishment  of  the  German  Industrial  Museum 


26  ART  EDUCATION. 

at  Berlin  were  taken  by  a  private  association,  formed  for  the  purpose,  in 
3866.  In  the  year  following,  the  society  was  chartered,  and  received  fifteen 
thousand  thalers  from  the  state  to  enable  it  to  purchase  art-industrial  objects 
at  the  Paris  Exposition.  The  schools  of  the  Museum  were  opened  on  the  12th 
of  January,  1868 ;  and  on  the  7th  of  April,  of  the  same  year,  the  collections 
were  thrown  open  to  the  public  in  a  provisional  building  provided  by  the 
state.  In  1869  a  portion  of  the  celebrated  Minutoli  collection  was  bought  for 
the  Museum  by  the  state,  at  an  expense  of  fifty  thousand  thalers  (about  $37,- 
500)  ;  and  in  1870  the  city  of  Berlin  voted  a  sum  of  one  hundred  thousand 
thalers,  to  be  applied  to  the  purposes  of  the  Museum,  and  to  be  known  as  tho 
"Frederic  William  Fund,"  in  honor  of  the  late  king  of  Prussia.  Various 
other  collections,  donations,  &c.,  were  added  from  time  to  time.  The  Museum 
is  now  managed  conjointly  by  the  members  of  the  society,  the  state,  and  tho 
city  of  Berlin.  It  receives  at  present  an  annual  contribution  of  eighteen 
thousand  thalers  from  the  State;  and  the  latter  has  also  agreed  to  provide  a 
special  building  for  the  Museum  and  its  schools,  the  cost  of  which  is  estimated 
at  eight  hundred  thousand  thalers  ($600,000).  The  collections  are  open  to  the 
public  daily,  except  Mondays,  free  of  charge.  The  schools  are  in  a  very 
flourishing  condition,  the  number  of  pupils  amounting  to  479  in  1874,  of  which 
about  five  per  cent  were  taught  free  of  charge.  At  the  exhibition  of  the 
works  of  the  pupils  in  1874,  thirty  prizes  were  distributed.  The  Museum 
has  a  branch  society  in  Magdeburg,  and  contemplates  the  arrangement  of 
travelling  exhibitions.  Its  publications,  according  to  the  catalogues  of  1873, 
embrace  261  photographs  and  251  casts. 

In  the  same  year  in  which  the  Berlin  Museum  was  established  (1866),  a  "  Col- 
lection of  Examples  for  the  Art  Industries"  was  commenced  at  Leipsic,  thanks 
to  the  exertions  of  the  late  lamented  Dr.  A.  von  Zahn;  and  in  the  year  1868 
the  collection  was  opened  to  the  public.  This  collection  has  now  been  united 
with  the  Art- Industrial  Museum  of  Leipsic,  which  was  formally  opened  Oct. 
25,  1874.  The  Museum  is  at  present  housed  in  rooms  rented  for  the  purpose  ; 
but  the  city  will  probably  provide  a  special  building  for  its  purposes,  and  aid 
has  also  been  promised  by  the  government  of  Saxony.  For  the  present  there 
are  no  schools  connected  with  this  Museum  ;  but  as  the  Art  Academy  at 
Leipsic,  under  the  direction  of  Prof.  Nieper,  has  of  late  years  paid  consider- 
able attention  to  art-industrial  instruction,  the  two  institutions  will  supple- 
ment each  other.  All  the  necessary  funds  have  so  far  been  provided  by 
wealthy  manufacturers,  and  friends  of  art. 

The  Bavarian  Industrial  Museum  at  Nuremburr/,  which  is  closely  connected 
with  the  celebrated  art-industrial  school  at  the  same  place,  publishes  an  illus- 
trated weekly  journal,  "Art  and  Industry"  (subscription  price,  5  thalers  per 
annum),arranges  courses  of  evening  lectures,  &c. 

The  Museum  at  Weimar,  opened  1869  under  the  direction  of  Dr.  A.  von  Zahn 
(whose  name  was  before  mentioned  in  connection  with  the  "Collection  of 
Art-Industrial  Examples"  at  Leipsic),  lays  special  weight  upon  the  art-indus- 
trial feature,  although  the  fine  arts  are  likewise  embraced  in  its  plan. 

In  the  year  18(59  a  society  was  formed  at  Dresden,  Avhose  aim  it  is  to  estab- 
lish a  collection  of  art-industrial  objects,  and  to  give  support  to  the  art-indus- 
trial schools  now  existing. 

The  Art- Industrial  Museum  at  Hamburg  will  be  found  alluded  to  under  the 
head  of  "  Hamburg." 


AUSTRIA.  27 

The  Germanic  National  Museum  at  Nuremberg,  the  Bavarian  National  Museum 
at  Munich,  the  Grand  Ducal  State  Industrial  Hall  at  Karlsruhe,  the  Grand  Ducal 
Museum  at  Darmstadt,  the  Roman- Germanic  Central  Museum  at  Mayence,  the 
Wallraff-Eichartz  Museum  at  Cologne  ( with  a  drawing-school),  the  Museums  at 
Gotha  and  at  Stuttgart,  are  all,  either  wholly  or  in  part,  devoted  to  the  interests 
of  art-industry,  and  seek  to  advance  them  in  various  ways,  by  publications, 
lectures,  &c. 

In  France,  similar  institutions  are  to  be  found  in  Paris,  Limoges,  Lyons, 
Havre,  Amiens,  Toulouse,  and  probably  in  other  places. 

Regarding  the  Russian  Museums,  see  under  "  Russia." 

As  one  of  the  latest  creations  of  this  kind,  the  "Himgarian  Industrial  Mu- 
seum at  Pesth  "  may  be  mentioned,  which  was  opened  April  19, 1874. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  the  above  list  does  not  embrace  any  of  the  museums 
devoted  only  to  fine-art  collections  proper.  The  Royal  Gallery  at  Dresden, 
the  National  Gallery  at  Berlin,  the  Pinakotheka  and  the  Glyptotheka  at  Mu- 
nich, the  several  galleries  at  Vienna,  the  City  Museum  at  Leipsic,  the  gallery 
of  the  Stradel-Institute  at  Frankfort  on  the  Main,  the  galleries  at  Brunswic,* 
Cassel,  and  other  places,  are  institutions  which  are  entirely  distinct  from  the 
Industrial  Museums.  —  Transl. 


HUNGARY. 

A  REVIEW  of  the  state  of  art-education  in  Hungary  must  for 
the  present  confine  itself  to  that  which  is  now  in  process  of  forming, 
as  art  matters  are  still  in  an  exceedingly  primitive  condition  in 
this  countay,  as  compared  with  the  countries  of  the  West.  Hun- 
gary, for  a  long  time  to  come,  will  have  to  direct  her  attention  to 
the  more  realistic  educational  necessities  of  her  people,  and  will 
have  to  provide  for  general  culture  by  means  of  the  People's  and 
Middle  Schools,  before  the  ideal  elements  can  be  thought  of.  It 
is  very  questionable,  therefore,  whether  the  efforts  for  the  advance- 
ment of  art-education,  now  making  throughout  the  country  by  the 
government,  will  be  able  to  bear  fruit  in  the  immediate  future, 
and  whether  it  would  not  be  wiser  to  apply  all  the  means  at  com- 
mand to  the  speedy  creation  of  a  stable  basis  for  general  educa- 
tion, leaving  it  to  time  to  develop  the  ideal  elements  organically 
and  naturally.  As  a  matter  of  course,  the  nation,  for  some  time 
to  come,  would  then  have  to  abandon  the  competition  with  other 
nations,  as  far  as  the  highest  products  of  civilization  are  con- 
cerned ;  and  it  may  be  a  question  whether  this  i$  possible  at  the 
present  day.  The  spirit  of  the  time  carries  every  thing  along,  and 
those  who  would  stand  still  must  go  to  the  rear.  Hungary  must 
therefore  hasten  forward  with  the  others  as  well  as  she  can,  but 
she  will  have  to  be  very  careful  in  filling  up  the  fearful  voids  which 
have  been  left  by  an  idle  past.  Sound  productivity  in  the  domains 
of  art  and  of  science  can  only  be  expected  after  intellectual  means 
of  inter-communication  in  all  directions  shall  have  been  provided. 
Forced  production  must  necessarily  be  unhealthy,  and  will  either 
rest  upon  foreign  supports,  or  will  be  nothing  but  an  empty  show. 

This  was  the  impression  made  by  the  Hungarian  exhibition  upon 
all  who  mean  well  to  the  cause.  As  long  as  Hungarian  artists 

28 


HUNGARY.  29 

receive  their  training  exclusively  in  foreign  countries,  their  art  will 
not  be  Hungarian  art;  as  long  as  industry  does  not  produce  its 
forms  and  its  workmen  in  the  country  itself,  it  will  not  be  national. 
No  efforts  are  making  to  refine  the  existing  national  elements, 
although  the  country  is  rich  in  monuments,  and  possesses  a  na- 
tional industry  which  is  quite  original.  Hungary  has  done  more 
for  the  cultivation  of  art  during  the  last  ten  years  than  all  she  has 
previously  done  in  centuries.  Collections  have  been  commenced 
or  re-organized,  societies  for  the  advancement  of  art  have  been 
formed,  schools  have  been  established,  scholarships  have  been 
founded,  and  magnificent  orders  have  been  given  to  native  artists. 
The  future  must  ripen  the  fruits  of  these  efforts. 

To  provide  a  common  centre  for  art-education,  an  institution 
has  been  founded,  which  is  so  organized  as  to  meet  the  necessities 
of  the  present,  and  which  will  exercise  a  beneficial  influence  in 
advancing  the  interests  under  consideration.  This  is  the  Royal 
Hungarian  State  Drawing  School,  and  the  Seminary  for  Drawing 
Teachers  connected  with  it  (opened  Nov.  1,  1871). 

Enactments  and  laws  on  educational  matters  cannot  be  carried 
out  rationally  as  long  as  efficient  teachers  are  wanting.  Although 
drawing  appears  as  a  subject  of  instruction  in  the  Elementary  and 
Higher  Normal  Schools  as  far  back  as  the  time  of  Queen  Maria 
Theresa,  in  the  "Ratio  educationis  publicse"  issued  by  this 
sovereign,  the  traces  of  the  results  will  nevertheless  be  looked  for 
in  vain.  The  truth  is,  there  were  neither  teachers,  nor  aids  for 
teaching.  This  want  is  to  be  met  by  the  institution  lately 
established.  Since  the  introduction  of  Real-Schools,  in  which 
drawing  plays  a  more  important  part,  and  since  the  subject 
has  been  made  compulsory  in  the  Gymnasia,  the  necessit}-  of  pro- 
viding such  teachers  has  been  officially  recognized. 

As  to  the  arrangement  of  the  school  in  question,  it  is  quite 
proper  that  it  should  have  more  of  the  character  of  a  higher  Art- 
Industrial  School,  with  special  reference  to  the  liberal  arts,  than  of 
an  Art-Academy,  which  latter,  as  experience  has  shown  once 
before,  would  be  of  little  benefit,  under  existing  circumstances, 
either  to  art  or  to  art-industry.  The  direction  of  the  school  has 
been  confided  to  Mr.  G.  Keleti,  who  has  thoroughly  studied  the 
question  of  art-education  in  foreign  countries,  and  in  accordance 
with  whose  experience  the  school  has  been  organized. 


30  ART  EDUCATION. 

The  principal  aim  of  this  institution  is  the  training  of  drawing- 
teachers  able  to  satisfy  the  demands  of  the  present  and  the  in- 
creasing necessities  of  the  country ;  furthermore,  to  assist  the 
development  of  native  industry  by  art-industrial  instruction  ;  and, 
finally,  to  prepare  the  more  talented  scholars  for  the  profession 
of  the  artist. 

These  aims  the  institution  seeks  to  reach  partly  by  means  of 
practical  instruction  in  the  three  branches  of  the  fine  arts,  partly 
by  suitable  courses  of  scientific  lectures. 

The  institution  therefore  consists,  — 

Of  a  general  preparatory  class  ; 

Of  a  higher  drawing  class,  which  again  is  divided  into  three 
branches :  — 

Figure  drawing  and  painting ; 

Architectural  and  ornamental  drawing ; 

Sculpture,  both  figure  and  ornament. 

To  this  must  be  added  the  section  for  wood-engraving. 

The  lectures  on  anatomy,  descriptive  geometry,  perspective, 
shadows,  history  of  art,  and  other  subjects,  supplement  the  prac- 
tical instruction.  For  the  improvement  in  drawing  of  persons 
engaged  in  industrial  pursuits,  whose  daytime  is  devoted  to  their 
calling,  there  is  a  regular  evening  class. 

The  preparatory  class  admits  as  pupils  only  those  who  have 
passed  successfully  through  the  Lower  Real-School,  the  Lower 
Gymnasium,  a  Citizens'  School,  or  a  Higher  People's  School.  To 
gain  admission  to  one  of  the  special  classes,  it  is  necessary  for 
the  pupil  to  have  passed  successfully  either  through  the  prepara- 
tory class  of  the  institution,  or  through  the  preparatory  insti- 
tution for  People's  School  teachers,  or  through  either  of  the  state 
institutions  above  specified,  and  besides  to  have  attained  the 
necessary  practice  in  freehand  drawing. 

The  candidates  for  the  position  of  drawing-teachers,  who  receive 
a  stipend  from  the  state  (at  present  thirteen,  with  three  hundred 
florins  each) ,  after  passing  through  the  preparatory  class,  must  go 
through  a  prescribed  course  of  instruction  of  three  years  dura- 
tion, after  which  they  are  subjected  to  an  examination,  and  receive 
certificates  according  to  their  accomplishments. 

The  results  of  instruction  which  were  exhibited  by  the  school 


HUNGARY.  31 

may  be  designated  as  very  satisfactory.  They  showed  throughout 
a  thorough  comprehension,  and  a  freedom  in  the  artistic  treatment, 
which  is  all  the  more  praiseworthy  in  view  of  the  short  period 
of  the  existence  of  the  school.  The  work  of  the  architectural  sec- 
tion (linear  drawing)  must  also  be  called  exemplaiy. 

The  Real-Schools  in  general,  as  has  before  been  said,  are  still  in 
want  of  trained  teachers.  But,  from  the  results  exhibited  by  the 
institutions  of  Pesth  and  Ofen,  it  became  evident  that  these  latter 
make  an  exception.  The  Upper  Real-School  of  the  city  of  Buda- 
Pesth  must  be  placed  first.  The  specimens,  although  specially 
selected  for  the  Exhibition,  showed  a  steady,  correct  course  of 
instruction,  a  careful  selection  of  originals,  guided  by  artistic 
knowledge,  and  a  skilful  application  of  technical  means.  Of  linear 
drawings  there  were  unfortunately  exhibited  too  many  specimens 
that  gave  but  little  insight  into  the  course  of  instruction,  and  into 
the  method.  The  drawings,  especially  those  of  machinery,  were 
brilliant,  —  only  too  brilliant  in  color,  and  of  superfluous  finish  for 
school-work. 

The  course  of  instruction  at  the  Royal  Upper  Real-School  is 
likewise  quite  correct ;  but  it  appeared  somewhat  doubtful  whether 
the  specimens  exhibited  were  indeed  to  be  looked  upon  as  results 
of  instruction,  or  whether  they  were  only  intended  to  illustrate  the 
course  of  instruction.  The  same  is  true  of  geometrical  drawing v 
which,  in  accordance  with  the  regulations  still  in  force,  comprises 
topographical,  architectural,  and  machine  drawing.  The  speci- 
mens exhibited  were  superbly  executed,  considering  the  ages  of 
the  pupils. 

The  State  Upper  Real-School  of  Pesth  was  also  represented  by 
very  thorough  and  appropriate  specimens  ;  the  specimens  of  mod- 
elling of  both  the  ro3ral  institutions  of  Pesth  were  likewise  quite 
praiseworthy. 

Among  the  other  schools  of  the  country,  the  achievements  of  the 
Upper  Real-School  of  Pressburg  appeared  to  greatest  advantage. 
The  ReaJ-Schools  of  Kaschau  and  of  Gran  are  taught  according  to 
a  good  system,  although  a  want  of  good  originals  is  still  notice- 
able in  the  last-named  institution,  as  well  as  in  most  of  the  other 
schools  of  the  province.  The  same  is  true  of  most  of  the  insti- 
tutions of  Transylvania,  of  which  only  the  Middle  School  at  Her- 
mannstadt  made  a  satisfactory  exhibition. 


32  ART  EDUCATION. 

The  People's  Schools,  which  are  now  regulated  by  law  in  Hun- 
gary, exhibited  no  drawings,  with  the  exception  of  the  Catholic 
Girls'  School  at  Pest  (landscapes,  flowers,  &c.). 

The  prosecution  of  systematic  instruction  in  drawing  in  the 
lowest  schools  will  probably  find  its  main  difficulty  in  the  want  of 
sufficiently  well  trained  teachers.  For  the  purpose  of  introducing 
a  uniformity  of  system,  the  government  has  published  a  guide,  to 
which  the  teachers  are  obliged  to  conform  themselves. 

We  can  only  repeat  what  we  said  at  the  outset,  that  every  thing 
in  this  department  in  Hungary  is  just  now  in  the  process  of  for- 
mation, and  that  it  will  probably  be  necessary  to  await  some  future 
World's  Fair  before  passing  judgment  upon  the  system  adopted. 


GERMANY. 

IT  will  be  conceded  on  all  sides,  and  without  question,  that  Ger- 
many occupied  a  prominent  place  at  the  present  Exhibition,  in  the 
contest  with  other  states  in  art  and  in  industry.  The  mass  as 
well  as  the  variety,  of  the  productions  exhibited  made  it  evident 
that  the  nation  has  at  its  command  a  wealth  of  talent  capable  of 
reaching  the  highest  aims,  and  that  it  possesses  all  the  means 
which  are  necessary  to  enable  it  to  add  the  triumph  in  the  arena 
of  labor  to  its  other  triumphs.  But,  in  spite  of  all  exertions,  this 
triumph  has  not  yet  been  achieved,  and  the  "  battle  of  forms"  has 
again  resulted  unfavorably  to  the  Germans.  This  is  a  fact  which 
can  only  be  accounted  for  by  the  deficiencies  of  art-education,  and 
of  the  cultivation  of  art  in  general. 

After  German  art,  at  the  commencement  of  this  century,  had 
begun  to  develop  itself  in  men  of  great  talent,  and  to  bring  forth 
grand  monumental  works,  more  especially  under  the  patronage 
of  the  Bavarian  princes,  art-industry  still  continued,  for  a  long 
time,  to  play  a  subordinate  part ;  since,  on  the  one  hand,  the  royal 
road  of  art  did  not  touch  the  domain  of  art-workmanship,  while, 
on  the  other,  French  taste  was  everywhere  so  deeply  rooted, 
that  it  seemed  impossible  to  oppose  it  with  a  view  to  a  reform. 
German  industry  in  general  appears  to  possess  but  little  national 
character,  from  the  time  of  the  degeneration  of  taste  in  the  seven- 
teenth centurj^,  down  to  our  own  day.  And  yet  the  opposition 
against  the  rule  of  French  taste  emanated  from  the  elements  of 
the  older  national  art,  which,  although  crippled  and  neglected, 
have  preserved  their  individuality  even  up  to  the  present  time. 
Germany  had  brilliant  epochs  in  art  and  in  industiy,  before  the 
time  of  the  Baroque  style.  German  Renaissance,  in  its  rich  de- 
velopment during  the  sixteenth  century,  in  which  the  traditional 
3  33 


34  ART  EDUCATION. 

mediaeval  elements  united  with  those  of  the  antique,  forms  the 
true  basis  of  our  national  art.  In  painting,  the  mediaeval  forms 
were  completely  absorbed  by  the  antique ;  in  the  present  age,  a 
refined  realism  is  developing  itself  side  by  side  with  idealism. 
Sculpture  still  bears  the  marks  of  the  epoch  in  question  more  dis- 
tinctly, but  it  is  likewise  about  to  pass  on  to  realism,  from  the 
antique.  Architecture,  which  at  the  same  time  had  admitted 
antique  decoration  into  its  Gothic  forms,  again  righted  itself  when 
the  purification  of  styles  took  place,  consequent  upon  the  com- 
plete re-awakening  of  Greek  art.  Art-industry,  however,  as  before 
remarked,  followed  the  current  of  development  but  hesitatingly. 
Upon  its  fallow  field  there  was  consummated  a  dissolution  rather 
than  a  blending  of  these  elements,  which,  indeed,  are  dualistic  in 
themselves.  Not  that  all  industrial  skill  has  been  lost  by  the 
Germans,  but  the  inventive  genius  is  wanting,  to  develop  the  ele- 
ments already  at  hand. 

The  visitor  at  the  German  Educational  Exhibition  could  see,  by 
looking  over  the  numerous  portfolios  containing  drawings  from  the 
various  Art-Schools,  that,  besides  the  Gothic  and  the  antique  styles, 
the  Renaissance  was  principally  represented.  But,  wherever  the 
attempt  had  been  made  to  unite  these  different  elements  in  original 
productions,  the  styles  rather  hindered  each  other,  so  to  speak, 
Instead  of  blending  together  organically.  The  study  of  nature, 
and  especially  of  plant-forms,  is  still  wanting  in  the  schools  ;  and 
both  of  these  are  indispensably  necessary  if  the  ornament  in  Ger- 
man industry  is  to  be  purified.  As  long  as  the  traditional  forms 
are  only  copied,  there  can  be  no  thought  of  the  development  of 
new  elements.  The  study  of  nature  must  also  supply  the  under- 
standing of  the  purpose  of  the  ornament,  i.e.,  its  relation  to  the 
object  and  to  the  material  employed,  or  the  art  of  learning  how  to 
translate  prosaic  forms  into  forms  rhj'thmically  constructed.  The 
German  Art-Industrial  Schools  are  often  closely  connected  with 
industry,  and  their  influence  is  perhaps  quite  as  potent  as  in  France 
and  elsewhere ;  which  becomes  apparent  from  the  fact,  that  the 
same  defects  and  the  same  excellences  are  observable  on  both  sides. 

The  experience  gained  by  the  Germans  at  former  World's  Fairs, 
in  the  department  of  art-industry,  has  indeed  brought  about  a  slow 
revolution  in  taste ;  but  a  decided  reform  has  not  yet  taken  place. 


GERMANY.  35 

It  must  of  course  be  admitted,  that  the  requisite  political  unity, 
and  with  it  the  necessary  guiding  and  animating  impulse  from 
above,  was  wanting  until  of  late  ;  but  there  was  also  wanting  what 
Gottfried  Semper,  at  the  time  of  the  London  Exhibition,  indicated  in 
his  "  Propositions  for  the  Incitement  of  a  National  Art-Feeling,"  l 
viz.,  "  a  suitable  general  education  of  the  people  in  matters  of 
taste."  It  is  only  quite  recently  that  things  are  beginning  to  stir 
on  all  sides ;  and,  if  the  efforts  now  making  are  vigorously  con- 
tinued in  the  future,  art-instruction  may  before  long  occupy  its 
proper  place  in  the  schools.  Drawing,  which,  outside  of  the  Art- 
Schools,  used  to  be  practiced  only  in  the  Industrial  Improvement 
Schools,  and  in  the  Sunday  and  evening  classes,  has  now  been 
partially  introduced  into  the  institutions  for  general  education, 
where  it  is  charged  with  the  mission  of  awakening  the  feeling  for 
the  beautiful  in  form.  Much,  indeed,  is  still  to  be  wished  for,  and 
much  still  remains  intrusted  to  the  future  ;  but  the  fullest  measure 
of  recognition  is  even  now  due  to  the  energetic  efforts  of  the  Ger- 
man drawing-teachers,  who  have  taken  hold  of  their  subject  with 
the  most  active  zeal,  and  have  already  achieved  excellent  results, 
especially  in  regard  to  methods,  and  the  provision  of  suitable 
examples  for  elementary  instruction.  It  was  only  to  be  regretted, 
that  so  little  of  the  work  of  the  pupils  of  the  People's  and  Middle 
Schools  was  exhibited ;  the  greater  bulk  related  to  the  special  schools 
and  schools  for  adults,  giving  a  very  clear  insight  into  the  efforts 
now  being  made  in  this  field,  especially  in  the  South  of  Germany. 

In  the  following  review  of  the  exhibitions  of  the  several  German 
states,  the  reporter  has  therefore  treated  more  especially  of  indus- 
trial education,  and,  as  far  as  the  People's  and  Middle  Schools  are 
concerned,  has  frequently  confined  himself  to  a  discussion  of  the 
laws  pertaining  to  this  subject,  and  to  the  drawing-copies  and 
other  aids  for  teaching  which  were  to  be  seen  at  the  World's  Fair. 
The  material  offered  for  inspection  was  quite  abundant ;  and  most 
of  the  states  had  taken  care  to  supplement  by  written  explanations 
whatever  had  been  omitted  in  the  Exhibition  for  want  of  room  or 
for  other  reasons. 

1  "Propositions,  &c."— See  Gottfried  Semper:  Wissenschaft,  Industrie, 
und  Kunst.  Vorschlage  zur  Anregung  nationalen  Kunstgefiilils.  Bei  dem 
Schlusse  der  Loiidoner  Industrie  Ausstellung.  Brunswic,  1852.—  Tranal. 


36  ART  EDUCATION. 

BAVARIA.  —  The  Educational  Exhibition  of  Bavaria  covered  all 
categories  of  educational  institutions,  from  the  Primary  Schools  for 
the  smallest  children  to  the  Technical  and  Industrial  High  Schools. 
Numerous  statistical  tables,  programmes,  &c.,  supplied  very  full 
information  regarding  the  organization  of  educational  matters,  and 
gave  a  clear  survey  of  each  separate  branch  of  education. 

The  Art-Industrial  Schools,  with  their  nuclei  at  Munich  and  Nu- 
remberg, are  the  traditional  centres  of  gravity  for  drawing-instruc- 
tion in  Bavaria.  The  subject  is  made  to  serve  the  industries 
almost  exclusively ;  and,  even  down  to  the  latest  times,  no  other 
than  practical  results  have  been  aimed  at.  It  need  not  surprise  us, 
therefore,  that  the  understanding  of  art  among  the  people  of  Ba- 
varia still  leaves  much  to  be  desired,  in  spite  of  the  flourishing 
condition  of  art  at  the  academies,  of  the  numerous  collections, 
museums,  monuments,  &c.,  created  by  art-loving  kings.  The 
principal  purpose  of  instruction  in  drawing  will  always  be  to  edu- 
cate the  eye  to  read  and  to  understand  forms  ;  but  the  subject  has 
been  totally  neglected  heretofore  in  the  Bavarian  schools.  Since 
German  art  was  recalled  to  life  by  Cornelius,  so  many  roads  have 
been  opened  for  this  branch  of  instruction,  that  it  must  indeed 
appear  strange  to  see  so  little  attention  paid  to  it,  as  a  part  of  the 
education  of  the  people,  in  the  very  country  in  which  this  resur- 
rection took  place.  *'  Although  instruction  in  drawing,"  says  J. 
Bahm  in  his  "Statistical  Handbook  of  the  Bavarian  People's 
Schools  "  (1872),  "  was  made  a  compulsory  study  in  the  People's 
Schools  by  the  plan  of  instruction  of  1811,  it  is  nevertheless  neg- 
lected in  most  of  the  schools  even  to-day ;  it  is  partly  taught  only 
in  the  larger  cities,  and  it  is  more  than  surprising  that  in  Nurem- 
berg, the  principal  industrial  city  of  Bavaria,  this  branch  of 
instruction  is  not  cultivated  at  all." 

Very  naturally  the  specimens  from  the  Bavarian  People's  Schools 
to  be  seen  at  the  Exhibition  were  unimportant,  and  gave  no  evi- 
dence of  any  definite  method.  An  exception  was  made  only  by 
the  Munich  schools,  in  which,  according  to  the  new  plan  of  instruc- 
tion of  1872,  drawing  upon  slates  is  begun  in  the  first  class,  pro- 
ceeding in  the  following  classes  from  the  drawing  of  simple 
geometrical  forms,  upon  paper,  to  outline  ornaments.  Better 
methods  are  also  followed  in  the  schools  of  Kirchdorf  and  Aich- 


GERMANY.  37 

bach,  in  which  latter  place  stigmographic  copies  are  used  with 
success. 

The  reason  for  the  slight  attention  paid  to  drawing  in  the  Bava- 
rian People's  Schools  is  no  doubt  frequently  owing  to  the  desultory, 
unsystematic  preparation  of  the  teachers  at  the  seminaries.  The 
specimens  exhibited  showed  this  very  strikingly.  The  law  of  1866 
for  the  education  of  teachers,  prescribes  the  following  order  for 
the  three  courses  :  "  Course  I.  Practice  of  the  eye  and  the  hand 
in  drawing  from  sufficiently  large  bodies  with  flat  surfaces  ;  expla- 
nation of  the  phenomena  of  sight,  and  consequently  the  first 
notions  of  perspective  ;  practice  in  regular  curves  and  spiral  lines, 
as  ground  forms  for  ornamentation.  Course  II.  Drawing  of 
simple  Roman  ornaments  from  wall-charts,  and,  if  feasible,  likewise 
from  casts.  Drawing  of  the  proportions  of  the  human  head  and 
its  divisions,  in  simple  outline.  Course  III.  Continuation  of 
practice  in  drawing  from  wall-charts  and  from  the  round.  Draw- 
ing of  the  human  head  and  of  its  separate  parts  on  various  scales. 
Linear  drawing :  Laying  out,  dividing,  and  measuring  of  straight 
lines,  plane  angles  and  figures,  construction  of  scales  with  the  aid 
of  ruler  and  instruments."  The  numerous  specimens  exhibited 
by  the  various  Seminaries  made  it  evident  that  these  demands  are 
only  partially  complied  with.  It  must  also  be  noticed,  that  none 
of  the  institutions  had  arranged  their  drawings  irweystematic  order, 
so  that  no  insight  could  be  gained  into  the  method.  The  want  of 
good  originals  likewise  made  itself  frequently  felt.  Except  in  the 
institutions  at  Straubing  and  at  Rosenheim,  Herdtle's  Ornaments, 
which  are  so  practical  for  the  People's  Schools,  were  nowhere  to  be 
found.  As  a  general  rule  antiquated  ideal  forms  are  copied,  which 
indeed  remind  one  of  the  antique,  the  Renaissance,  or  the  Gothic 
style,  but  are  so  lax  that  they  might  rather  be  said  to  represent 
the  tendencies  of  the  Baroque  epoch ;  it  is  the  same  with  figure- 
drawing,  which,  however,  is  practiced  only  incidentally.  Drawing 
from  casts  shows  good  results  wherever  it  is  preceded  by  good 
outline-drawing ;  very  neat  work  of  this  kind  was  shown  b}'  the 
Seminaries  at  Speier  and  at  Lauingen,  but  the  portfolios  of  the 
latter  also  contained  objectionable  landscapes.  Drawings  from 
models  (geometrical  forms)  were  exhibited  by  the  Seminary  at 
Kaiserslautern.  The  institutions  at  Wurzburg,  Freising,  Bamberg, 


38  ART  EDUCATION. 

and  Eichstadt  adhere  principally  to  outline  ornament ;  at  the  Sem- 
inary at  Passau,  unusual  attention  is  devoted  to  drawing  from 
casts,  but  in  a  line-manner  which  cannot  be  recommended,  as  the 
modulations  of  the  form  can  never  be  mastered  by  it  as  well  as 
when  tints  are  employed. 

Regarding  geometrical  drawing,  it  may  be  said  of  the  institutions 
named,  that  projection  is  principally  practiced  in  its  application  to 
simple  architectural  subjects,  such  as  columns,  &c.  For  the  pres- 
ent, systematical  geometrical  drawing  is  practiced  but  little  in  the 
Seminaries.  A  small  and  concise  manual  by  J.  Bohm,  "  Drawing 
Geometry/'  which  was  shown  at  the  Exhibition,  and  which  is 
especially  intended  for  those  who  aspire  to  become  teachers,  is 
well  calculated  to  supply  the  deficiency  in  this  respect. 

In  the  Real-Gymnasia  of  Bavaria,  drawing  is  practiced,  if  not 
with  remarkable,  at  least  with  veiy  respectable  success.  Ornament 
is  practiced  almost  exclusively,  and  the  main  stress  is  laid  upon 
correct  outlines.  The  examples  are  taken  from  the  Renaissance 
and  the  Gothic  style ;  the  technical  means  are  pencil  and  pen. 
The  first  class  begins  with  geometrical  forms,  which  are  followed 
up  in  the  second  class  by  outline  ornaments ;  in  the  third  and 
fourth  class  shaded  drawing  from  casts  is  practiced,  and  the 
more  talented  pupils  are  permitted  to  draw  figures. 

According  to  a  royal  enactment  of  the  year  1867,  it  is  the  prov- 
ince of  the  Bavarian  Real-Gymnasia,  to  impart  not  only  a  general 
scientific  education,  but  also  to  provide  for  that  knowledge  which 
is  necessary  as  a  preparation  for  the  various  callings  requiring  a 
more  intimate  acquaintance  with  the  exact  sciences.  They  are 
therefore  primarily  intended  to  provide  the  requisite  basis  for  the 
studies  of  those  who  propose  serving  the  state  in  a  technical  ca- 
pacity, and,  running  parallel  to  the  humanistic  Gymnasia,  they 
presuppose  the  knowledge  of  the  four  classes  of  the  Latin  school. 
A  wider  scope  is  consequently  given  to  drawing  in  these  schools, 
than  is  given  to  it  in  similar  institutions  in  Austria,  in  which, 
indeed,  the  bifurcation  lies  in  the  foundation,  the  tendency  is  pre- 
eminently humanistic,  and  little  attention  is  paid  to  linear  drawing. 
In  these  Austrian  schools,  geometry  is  assigned  to  mathematics, 
and  projection  is  only  practiced  in  the  fourth  class,  together  with 
freehand  drawing,  which,  at  the  rate  of  only  four  hours  each 


GERMANY.  39 

week,  must  evidently  be  of  but  little  importance.  In  the  Bavarian 
Real-Gymnasia,  three  to  four  hours  are  devoted  to  geometry  in  the 
three  first  classes,  and  six  hours  to  drawing  throughout,  the  order 
of  studies,  according  to  the  programme  laid  down  by  the  Govern- 
ment, being  as  follows:  Construction  in  the  plane,  projection, 
shadows,  and  perspective. 

The  Real-Gymnasium  at  Munich,  following  the  "  Manual  for  In- 
struction in  Linear  Drawing,"  by  L.  Edelmann,  Munich,  1871  (the 
author  is  a  teacher  engaged  in  the  institution),  exhibited  very 
praiseworthy  specimens,  which  fulfilled  all  the  requirements  of  the 
plan  of  instruction.  The  same  cannot  be  said  of  most  of  the 
other  institutions.  The  beginning  is  generally  made  with  projec- 
tion at  the  outset,  and  building  and  architectural  drawing  are 
practiced  almost  exclusively ;  here  and  there  constructive  per- 
spective is  also  practiced,  but  without  a  definite,  uniform  plan  of 
instruction.  The  first  orders  of  columns  play  the  principal  part 
in  linear  drawing,  here  as  well  as  elsewhere  in  the  Bavarian 
schools. 

The  Real-Gymnasium  at  Ratisbon  stood  next  to  the  institution  in 
Munich,  as  regards  good  freehand  drawing;  but  bad  copies  for 
figures  neutralized  the  good  effect  produced  by  Herdtle  in  orna- 
ment. Perfect  outrages  were  also  to  be  found  among  the  figures 
in  the  portfolios  of  the  institutions  of  Nuremberg  and  Wiirzburg, 
whole  academical  studies  having  been  executed  with  the  pen.  At 
the  latter  school,  good  work  is,  however,  done  with  the  pencil  from 
casts  from  ornaments. 

Drawing  in  the  other  Latin  Schools  in  Bavaria,  as  well  as  else- 
where, occupies  rather  an  isolated  position,  and  will  continue  to 
occupy  it  as  long  as  a  bridge  is  not  thrown  out  from  both  sides, 
—  the  real  as  well  as  the  humanistic  branches.  The  revised  regu- 
lations for  the  Latin  Schools  and  the  Gymnasia  in  the  kingdom  of 
Bavaria,  of  the  year  1863,  tolerate  drawing  as  an  elective  subject, 
and  leave  it  to  the  "  zeal  of  the  rectorates  and  teachers  by  ade- 
quate instruction  to  awaken  a  lively  interest  for  it  in  the  pupils." 
It  will  easily  be  seen  that  this  regulation  had  no  effect  whatever, 
without  necessarity  blaming  the  rectorates  and  teachers  concerned. 
A  presentiment  of  the  necessity  of  drawing  again  made  itself  felt 
in  the  "  Outlines  of  a  Regulation  for  Learned  Middle 


40  ART  EDUCATION. 

the  Kingdom  of  Bavaria"  (elaborated  by  the  Consultative  Com- 
mission, 1870)  ;  but  it  was  simply  a  jack-o'-lantern,  as  the  idea 
was  not  in  the  least  adhered  to.  The  paragraph  in  question  (2) 
runs  thus :  "  Instruction  in  drawing,  in  accordance  with  the  pre- 
vious regulations  of  the  order  of  study,  is  admitted  into  the 
scheme  of  instruction  as  an  elective  subject.  In  view  of  the  im- 
portance of  this  study  for  the  development  of  the  feeling  for  form, 
and  for  the  education  of  a  refined  taste,  it  may  be  legitimately 
asked,  whether  it  should  not  be  prescribed  as  a  compulsory  sub- 
ject of  study,  at  least  in  the  classes  of  the  Latin  School.  But,  as 
the  commission  has  not  discussed  this  point,  drawing  has  been 
treated  as  an  elective  subject  of  study  in  the  '  Outlines  '  under  con- 
sideration, in  accordance  with  previous  regulations." 

So  the  question  remains  an  open  one  for  the  present ;  but  from 
day  to  day  it  presents  itself  more  urgently  to  the  humanistic  edu- 
cational institutions.  Art-education  knocks  loudly  at  the  doors 
of  the  Gymnasia ;  and  they  will  not  fully  justify  their  title  of 
"Humanistic  Educational  Institutions"  until  this  unfortunately 
too  long  neglected  study  shall  have  been  added  as  a  supplement  to 
those  now  recognized. 

We  shall  now  turn  to  the  schools  in  which  drawing  is  practiced 
mainly  in  the  interest  of  industry,  i.e.,  to  the  Industrial  Improve- 
ment Schools,  and  to  the  Industrial  and  Technical  Schools  proper. 
Nearly  every  more  important  place  in  Bavaria  has  its  Industrial 
Improvement  School,  most  of  them  supported  by  the  communes, 
in  which  partly  purely  industrial,  but  sometimes  also  agricultural 
and  commercial  interests  are  cared  for.  It  is  the  first  aim  of  these 
schools  to  give  to  the  artisan  the  elements  of  general  education, 
rather  than  to  prepare  him  for  his  special  calling,  so  as  to  train 
able  men  in  the  industrial  classes,  who  shall  unite  a  certain  intel- 
lectual maturity  with  a  knowledge  of  their  specialty,  and  who 
shall  be  equal  to  the  demands  made  upon  them  by  the  social  and 
political  life  of  to-day. 

Nobody  will  deny  that  drawing  is  called  upon  to  play  an  impor- 
tant part  in  these  schools.  It  must  be  employed  to  exert  a  purify- 
ing influence  upon  taste,  and  must  also  give  that  necessary  techni- 
cal skill  which  is  so  directly  applicable  to  practical  life.  The 
former  can  be  reached  only  by  means  of  a  systematic  course  of. 


GERMANY.  41 

instruction,  with  good  examples,  while  the  latter  will  depend  upon 
the  activity  and  the  diligence  of  the  pupil.  On  the  whole,  the  Bava- 
rian Industrial  Improvement  Schools,  to  judge  by  the  specimens 
exhibited,  leave  much  to  be  desired  as  yet  in  both  respects.  The  main 
reason  for  the  poor  results  may,  indeed,  be  sought  in  the  fact,  that 
the  preparation  of  the  pupils  in  the  elementary  schools  is  exceed- 
ingly unequal,  and  that  the  weaker  part  of  the  pupils  of  these 
preparatory  classes  generally  finds  its  way  into  the  Improvement 
Schools  ;  but  local  circumstances  which  hinder  a  systematic  prose- 
cution of  the  course  of  instruction  must  also  be  taken  into  ac- 
count. Good  drawing-copies  would  therefore  be  of  the  most 
urgent  necessity  in  the  drawing-classes.  But  whoever  looked  over 
the  portfolios  of  this  category  of  schools  was  compelled  to  ac- 
knowledge, that,  for  the  present,  there  are  great  defects  existing 
in  this  respect.  Forms  of  ornament  are  still  commonly  in  use 
which  are  antiquated,  and  which  but  rarely  have  any  reference  to 
practical  application.  As  regards  the  technique,  shading  is 
mostly  commenced  too  soon ;  the  drawing  of  forms  is  frequently 
abandoned  too  early,  and  recourse  is  had  to  making  pictures  of 
landscapes.  In  linear  drawing,  the  elements  of  geometry  are 
wanting  in  most  of  the  schools  ;  instruments  are  used  in  the  first 
stages  in  drawing  decorations  of  surfaces,  mosaic  floors,  &c.  ;  and 
these  exercises  are  followed  up  by  projection  and  architectural 
drawing. 

The  only  praiseworthy  exception  was  made  by  the  school  at 
Tols,  which  exhibited  good  outline  ornaments,  and  very  respecta- 
ble drawings  in  various  specialties.  Giinzburg  also  showed  to 
better  advantage  ;  the  institutions  of  Werdenfels,  Laiidsberg,'  and 
Aichach  likewise  gave  evidence  of  good  intentions.  In  the  Im- 
provement Schools  of  an  agricultural  tendency,  topographical 
drawing  is  here  and  there  practiced  with  tolerable  success. 

Better  results  are  naturally  reached  in  the  day-schools  ;  and  the 
institution  at  Rosenheim  had  sent  very  excellent  work.  In  this 
connection,  the  specimens  furnished  by  the  Building  Trades  School 
at  Ratisbon  must  also  be  mentioned.  They  clearly  illustrated 
the  course  of  instruction  in  all  the  branches  of  building  drawing, 
and  were  among  the  best  of  their  kind  in  the  Bavarian  Exhibi- 
tion. 


42  ART  EDUCATION. 

The  results  of  drawing  instruction  in  the  Industrial  Schools 
proper  may,  on  the  whole,  be  called  satisfactory,  and  more  espe- 
cially so  in  some  of  the  institutions  known  as  District  Industrial 
Schools 1  (supported  by  the  districts) ,  a  fact  which  is  to  be  attrib- 
uted to  the  more  liberal  endowment  and  the  better  situation  of 
these  institutions.  In  the  organization  of  the  schools,  local  ne- 
cessities are  frequently  kept  in  view,  and,  on  the  whole,  the 
commercial  tendency  prevails  in  them ;  only  the  schools  of  Nu- 
remberg and  Munich  possess  a  pronounced  industrial  character. 

The  drawings  by  pupils  which  were  exhibited,  evidenced 
throughout  an  efficient  system  of  instruction.  A  beginning  is 
generally  made,  in  the  first  freehand  course,  with  Herdtle's  or 
Volz's  copies.  These  are  succeeded  in  the  second  course  by  orna- 
ments slightly  shaded,  and  drawing  from  casts,  projection  being 
practiced  quite  extensively  at  the  same  time ;  the  third  course  is 
more  especially  devoted  to  drawing  relating  to  special  branches, 
freehand  drawing  being  practiced  exclusively  from  nature,  while 
architectural  and  machine  drawing  is  practiced  in  linear  drawing. 
Very  good  work  was  exhibited  by  the  industrial  schools  of  Wiirz- 
burg,  Ratisbon,  Nuremberg,  and  Fiirth.  The  latter  institution 
also  exhibited  an  extensive  collection  of  stereometric  models  (con- 
structed of  glass  surfaces)  which  had  been  executed  by  Dr. 
Langhans,  a  very  efficient  teacher  in  the  school,  and  which,  in 
exactness  of  execution  and  in  practical  combination,  left  other 
aids  for  teaching  of  the  same  kind  far  behind.2 

The  achievements  of  the  schools  at  Beyreuth  and  Freising  also 
deserve  honorable  mention. 

The  Munich  Improvement  School  for  Artisans  was  especially 
brilliant  in  its  (technical)  linear  drawings.  The  ornaments, 
although  sometimes  of  excellent  execution,  were  wanting  in  grace, 
—  a  peculiarity  which,  unfortunate!}^,  they  share  with  German 
industry  in  general.  The  modelling  in  wax,  and  the  chased  work, 
were  undoubtedly  above  criticism  in  their  technical  execution ;  but 

1  There  are  altogether  thirty-one  Intermediate  Industrial  Schools  in  Bava- 
ria, six  of  the  most  important  of  which  are  called  District  Industrial  Schools. 

2  The  reporter  believes  it  his  duty  to  dwell  upon  these  excellent  models 
with  especial  emphasis,  as,  strangely  enough,  they  were  overlooked  by  the 
jury.. 


GERMANY.  43 

there  was  a  certain  heaviness  of  style,  which  frequently  interfered 
with  the  distinctness  of  the  motives.1  Volz's  wall-charts,  "  School 
of  Ornament  and  Architecture "  (mostly  Gothic  and  Greek 
motives) ,  which  are  in  use  in  the  institution,  afford  practical  aid 
in  teaching.  I  would  prefer  a  more  decided  accentuation  of  the 
light  and  graceful  elements  of  which  the  Renaissance  is  so  fruitful 
a  source. 

No  especial  tendency  of  taste  was  to  be  discovered  in  the  draw- 
ings exhibited  by  the  "  Poly  technical  Central  Society  of  Wurzburg." 
The  beginning  with  outline  ornament  is  good  ;  the  continuation  in 
figure  and  landscape  drawing,  on  the  contrary,  is  deficient.  The 
drawing  of  wire-models  and  solid  bodies,  in  the  excessive  finish 
shown  by  the  specimens,  is  likewise  waste  of  time.  The  drawings 
of  ornamental  sculpture,  on  the  contrary,  deserve  recognition,  but 
untast}7  paper  of  too  dark  a  tint  had  been  used  throughout. 
Figure-drawing  from  casts  and  from  nature  was  quite  insignificant ; 
the  studies  in  color  of  flowers,  still-life,  &c.,  were  better. 

The  study  of  plant-forms,  as  before  remarked,  is  unfortunately 
practiced  but  little  in  the  German  drawing-schools ;  a  tendency 
towards  improvement  is,  however,  noticeable  in  this  direction. 
Very  excellent  aids  for  teaching,  to  assist  in  the  transition  from 
conventionalized  to  natural  plant-forms,  were  shown  by  J.  Filser 
(Munich) ,  in  the  shape  of  a  collection  of  casts  from  living  leaves, 
the  natural  movements  of  which  had  been  transferred  exceedingly 
well  into  the  more  solid  material. 

Besides  the  works  mentioned,  not  much  has  been  produced  in 
Bavaria  of  late,  in  the  "way  of  drawing-copies.  The  excellent 
works  on  linear  and  ornamental  drawing,  by  Prof.  H.  "VVeiss- 
haupt,  the  zealous  champion  of  the  advancement  of  drawing- 
instruction,  are  too  well  known  everywhere  to  need  more  than  a 
mention  here;  E.  Volz,  teacher  of  drawing  and  modelling  at  the 
District  Industrial  School  of  Kaiserslautern,  deserves  praise  for 
his  copies  and  wall-charts  for  elementary  instruction.  Through 
his  instrumentality  the  stigmographic  method,  which  is  so  very 

/ 

1  Motive  is  a  very  convenient  word,  which  might  as  well  be  Introduced  into 
the  dictionary  of  English  art-language,  the  same  as  it  has  been  long  ago  intro- 
duced into  that  of  English  musical  language.  Here,  as  there,  a  motive  is  a 
theuie,  a  suggestion,  which  the  artist  may  reproduce  in  a  variation.— Trand. 


44  ART  EDUCATION. 

practical  in  the  first  stage  of  instruction,  is  being  introduced  into 
the  drawing-schools  of  the  Palatinate.  His  neat  little  books, 
based  upon  this  method,  deserve  the  fullest  recognition  for  their 
careful,  systematic  grouping  of  the  simplest  geometrical  forms ; 
the  same  author's  copies  for  instruction  in  linear  drawing,  for  the 
use  of  the  lower  sections  of  Technical  Schools,  are  likewise  quite 
practical. 

The  centre  of  attraction  of  the  Bavarian  Educational  Exhibition 
was,  however,  formed  by  the  works  of  the  higher  Art-Industrial 
Schools  of  Nuremberg  and  of  Munich.  In  Munich,  the  interests 
of  art-industry  are  principally  cared  for  by  the  Itoyal  Art-Indus- 
trial School  and  the  Art-Industrial  Association,  while  the  cul- 
tivation of  art  proper  is  made  over  to  the  Academy  of  the 
Arts  of  Design,  which,  under  Kaulbach's1  and  Piloty's  direc- 
tion, may  at  present  be  looked  upon  as  the  central  point  of  German 
painting. 

In  Nuremberg  both  tendencies  are  united  in  one  institution,  — 
the  oldest  among  the  art-schools  of  Germany  (founded  by  Joa- 
chim v.  Sandrart,  1606-1688),  which  has  made  considerable 
advances,  especially  during  the  two  last  decades,  under  the  excel- 
lent management  of  A.  v.  Kreling.  The  objects  exhibited  by  this 
institution  gave  a  clear  idea  of  its  plan  of  instruction  and  of  its 
exertions  in  behalf  of  taste.  The  plan  of  instruction  is  based 
upon  the  desire  to  carry  the  artistic  education  of  the  pupils 
to  the  highest  possible  perfection  in  all  branches,  and,  at  the 
same  time,  to  elevate  industry  by  bringing  it  under  the  influence 
of  art. 

Instruction  begins  with  ,the  drawing  of  ornaments  from  casts ; 
and  the  pupil,  after  having  reproduced  the  outlines  correctly,  is 
led  to  study  the  equally  important  internal  movement  of  the  forms. 
The  modelling  of  ornaments  is  generally  done  from  drawings  (old 
examples  being  partially  employed) ,  so  as  to  give  facility  to  the 
pupil  in  the  translation  of  graphic  into  plastic  representation, 
which  is  so  necessary  in  industrial  pursuits. 

To  give  practice  iri  the  treatment  of  wood  and  of  metals,  wood- 
carvings  and  chased  works  in  metal  are  executed  in  the  institution, 

1  Kaulbach.  —  It  is  hardly  necessary  to  say  that  "Wilhelm  von  Kaulbach  died 
April  8, 1874,  when  Prof.  Langl's  Report  had  already  been  published.—  Transl. 


GERMANY.  45 

which  either  pass  into  the  shops  of  manufacturers  as  models, 
or  are  put  to  direct  use  for  ecclesiastical  or  profane  purposes. 

In  architecture,  constructive  drawing  from  antique,  Gothic,  and 
Renaissance  examples,  is  followed  up  by  original  designs,  and  by 
the  application  of  architecture  to  the  ornamentation  of  art-indus- 
trial objects. 

In  the  figure  "the  antique  is  succeeded  by  the  study  of  nature, 
for  the  portrait  and  for  the  whole  figure,  in  drawing  as  well  as  in 
modelling.  Painting  is  also  practiced  in  this  connection. 

The  institution,  likewise  with  a  view  to  the  advancement  of  art- 
industry,  also  accepts  orders  for  plastic  or  pictorial  objects  of  a 
larger  size,  as  well  as  for  the  solution  of  purely  artistic  problems, 
the  execution  being  intrusted  to  the  pupils  under  the  direction  of 
their  teachers.  By  this  arrangement,  which  has  resulted  from  ex- 
perience, the  institution  provides  that  which  is  so  frequently  want- 
ing to  German  industry,  and  which  was  particularly  dwelt  upon 
at  the  beginning  of  this  essay,  —  a  bridge  between  art  and  art- 
industry. 

The  organization  of  the  Nuremberg  Art-School,  such  as  it 
has  been  rapidly  sketched  here,  together  with  its  supplement- 
ary art-historical  and  anatomical  lectures,  the  employment  of 
various  processes  for  the  multiplication  of  its  productions,  &c., 
certainly  leaves  nothing  to  be  desired.  The  only  question  which 
remains  open  to  discussion,  is  this  :  "What  relation  does  the  tend- 
ency of  the  school  (as  regards  style)  bear  to  the  general  current 
of  the  times?  and  what  influence  will  it  exercise  upon  German 
industry  for  the  present,  and  in  the  immediate  future?  As 
a  matter  of  course,  we  here  touch  upon  a  question  of  much 
more  general  importance ;  this,  namely :  What  part  does  the 
Gothic  style  enact  in  the  architecture  and  the  industry  of  to- 
day? 

Whoever  wanders  through  the  streets  of  old  Nuremberg  will 
readily  understand,  that,  in  the  midst  of  the  living  traditions  of 
the  middle  ages,  among  the  fairest  flowers  of  German  art,  these 
same  elements  must  necessarily  continue  to  thrive  in  an  art-school 
there  situated,  even  when  elsewhere  time  has  already  provided  a 
new  garment  for  art,  and  taste,  always  developing  in  ever- varying 
changes,  has  indulged  itself  in  an  abundance  of  other  forms.  The 


46  ART  EDUCATION. 

Gothic  style  lost  almost  the  whole  of  the  field  of  secular  art,  from 
the  time  when  modern  art,  principally  through  the  example  of  the 
Renaissance,  returned  to  nature,  and  when  the  spirit  of  poetry  again 
recognized  in  nature  the  purest  sources  of  its  inspiration.  The 
Gothic  style  therefore  turned  its  attention  more  especially  to  eccle- 
siastical art,  in  which  it  had,  indeed,  brought  forth  its  grandest 
creations  in  the  past,  and  in  this  department  alone  will  it  still  be 
able  to  thrive,  in  architecture,  as  well  as  in  art-industry.  Under 
the  pressure  of  the  times  the  Nuremberg  Art-School,  which  used 
to 'cultivate  the  Gothic  style  by  preference,  has  also  taken  up  the 
German,  and  even  the  Italian  Renaissance,  by  degrees.  The 
graceful  forms  of  the  South  alongside  of  the  severe,  strongly- 
marked  forms  of  the  North !  The  various  elements  touch  each 
other,  but  they  do  not  unite  in  renewed  fructification.  However 
respectable  the  achievements  of  the  school  in  its  various  directions 
may  be,  they  nevertheless  show  that  its  greatest  attainment  is  to 
be  found  in  the  imitation  of  traditional  forms.  The  pulsating 
elements  are  wanting,  which  stimulate  to  the  production  of  new 
and  vital  forms  ;  and  the  compositions  will  always  be  deficient  in 
originality  as  long  as  existing  motives  are  only  combined.  When 
the  attempt  is  made  to  treat  the  Nuremberg  and  Augsburg  exam- 
ples with  more  freedom,  the  ornament  loses  its  proper  nucleus,  and 
becomes  insipid  in  its  continually  unrolling  strips  of  leather,  which 
are  any  thing  but  graceful,  although  they  will  admit  of  an  animated 
play  of  forms. 

The  Gothic  style  must  continue  its  development  in  the  ecclesi- 
astical field,  if  a  development  can  be  spoken  of  at  all,  while 
secular  art  must  start  from  nature  in  its  ornamental  motives,  and 
must  speak  the  dialect  of  the  Renaissance  in  its  forms  and  for  its 
purposes,  if  an  open  road  is  to  be  constructed  for  progress.  In 
this  respect  the  Nuremberg  Art-School  is  still  incomplete.  Grace 
and  life  must  be  sought  in  nature,  while  the  technical  must  be 
studied  in  the  productions  of  art.  A  praiseworthy  beginning  in 
this  direction  has  already  been  made  with  the  figure,  especially 
under  the  influential-  management  of  Kreling ;  the  study  of  nature 
in  this  department,  in  drawing  as  well  as  in  modelling,  being 
carried  on  most  assiduously.  Unfortunately,  however,  the  numer- 
ous busts  and  academical  figures  showed  that  this  translation  of 


GERMANY.  47 

drawings  into  plastic  works,  which  is  certainly  of  great  value  to 
art-industry,  is  taken  up  somewhat  too  early  ;  the  suret}r  in  la}'ing 
out  the  planes  is  wanting,  which  can  only  be  obtained  by  thorough 
study  of  good  sculptures,  or  of  nature.  In  this  wrestling  with 
form,  the  pupil  very  naturally  loses  the  individual,  the  intellectual 
in  the  conception,  which  belongs  to  the  face  as  the  fragrance  does 
to  the  flower.  The  studies  in  relief  were  likewise  wanting  in  finer 
feeling,  and  often  in  the  organic  flow  of  the  forms,  which,  again, 
can  only  be  obtained  by  thorough  anatomical  study,  and  a  skill 
well  schooled  by  the  antique.  The  high,  almost  round  treatment 
now  in  vogue  might  also  be  replaced  with  advantage  by  the  noble 
profile  of  the  Parthenon  reliefs,  as  this  would  accustom  the  pupils, 
and  more  especially  the  beginners,  to  a  severer  adhesion  to  form. 
•  The  style  shown  by  the  numerous  ornaments  exhibited  has 
before  been  indicated ;  they  all  gave  evidence  of  the  technical 
skill  of  the  pupils.1  Neatly  executed  modellings  in  wax,  most 
of  them  intended  for  the  ornamentation  of  vessels,  utensils, 
&c.,  must  also  be  mentioned.  There  were  also  exhibited  very 
beautiful,  sometimes  indeed  exemplary,  designs  for  furniture, 
which  had  been  executed  in  the  institution ;  and  it  may  be  said 
in  general,  that  the  productions  of  the  school  in  this  department 
are  very  laudable,  especially  in  church  furniture.  In  the  archi- 
tectural designs  the  Gothic  style  predominates  ;  and  the  extensive 
activity  of  the  institution  in  this  respect  was  illustrated  by  photo- 
graphs and  drawings.  The  wood-carvings  and  the  ornaments  in 
plaster  moved  within  the  sphere  of  the  Gothic  style  and  of  the 
Renaissance,  and  likewise  left  nothing  to  be  desired  as  regards, 
technical  perfection.  As  to  the  drawings,  the  only  fault  to  be 
found  was,  that  they  were  finished  "  too  much."  Time  is  money, 
more  especially  to  the  disciples  of  art ;  and  the  lithographic 
stippling  of  planes,  backgrounds,  &c.,  is  not  only  waste  of  time, 
but  it  is  also  deadening  to  the  intellect.  In  the  execution  in  draw- 
ing, the  German,  as  well  as  the  Italian  schools,  may  still  look 
upon  the  French  as  models,  i.e.,  they  may  learn  from  them  the 
shortest  way  to  the  purpose  by  the  simplest  means.  It  appears, 

1  The  institution  reproduces  most  of  the  works  of  its  pupils,  for  the  use  of 
other  schools;  and  four  hundred  and  thirty -six  models  have  so  far  been  pub- 
lished for  this  purpose. 


48  ART  EDUCATION. 

indeed,  and  it  is  certainly  to  be  hoped,  that  the  institution  permitted 
the  expenditure  of  so  much  time  only  upon  the  specimens  intended 
for  the  Exhibition,  although  this  would  again  show  that  the  aim  of 
the  Exhibition  had  been  misapprehended  ;  for  one  of  the  main  levers 
of  progress  is  to  be  found  in  the  comparison  of  the  various  methods 
of  execution  now  in  use.  The  crayon-studies  of  heads  from 
nature  (executed  on  white  paper)  gave  evidence  of  a  more  pro- 
found and  more  individual  conception  than  the  studies  in  plaster. 
The  academical  drawings  in  crayon  and  charcoal  likewise  mani- 
fested thoroughness  of  study ;  but  it  must  be  said  that  names 
were  to  be  found  among  them  to  whom  the  master's  diploma  in 
art  was  awarded  long  ago.  The  oil-studies  looked  as  though 
they  were  all  the  work  of  one  hand  ;  whether  this  be  an  advantage 
or  a  disadvantage  of  the  school,  we  cannot  at  present  investi- 
gate. 

The  efforts  of  instruction  in  drawing  in  all  the  German  Art- 
Schools  are  principally  devoted  to  the  thorough  comprehension  of 
form,  and  by  far  too  little  stress  is  laid  upon  picturesque  illusion, 
i.e.,  the  variety  in  the  shading,  which,  after  all,  is  of  importance. 
The  drawings  from  casts,  with  their  glaring  lights  and  shades, 
mostly  look  as  if  they  had  been  made  from  bronze  models  ;  a  more 
graceful,  easier  execution  is  greatly  to  be  desired.  It  is  curious 
that  red  chalk,  which  is  so  telling,  is  everywhere  rejected  as  a 
drawing  material. 

The  ever-growing  collections  of  the  Art-Industrial  Museum  at 
Nuremberg,  which  again  received  important  accessions  from  the 
Vienna  World's  Fair,  will  undoubtedly  by  degrees  bring  indus- 
trial education  into  closer  communion  with  the  tendencies  of  our 
time  ;  and  this  can  only  be  of  advantage  to  the  industries  of  the 
Nuremberg  district. 

Art-industry  in  Munich,  the  same  as  in  Nuremberg,  likewise 
bears  a  specifically  local  character.  Here,  in  consequence  of  a 
richer  development  of  art  in  general,  peculiarly  pleasing  motives 
of  a  romantic  tendency  have  been  intermixed  with  the  German  ele- 
ments, and  have  been  introduced  into  all  branches  of  art-industry 
with  peculiar  skill.  Here,  where  Sen  wind,  the  "father  of  the 
fairy  tale"  in  art,  called  forth  from  the  interior  of  mountains, 
.from  rocky  castles,  and  the  darkness  of  the  forest,  his  magic  figures 


GERMANY.  49 

enshrined  in  leafage  and  arabesque ;  here,  where  Kaulbach,  the 
master  humorist,  has  been  active  for  decades,  and  where  one  troop 
of  mirthful  disciples  of  art  is  relieved  by  the  other,  all  of  them 
finding  in  the  "  Fliegende  Blatter"1  a  classical  diary  for  their 
never-failing  wit  and  their  genuine  German  poetical  feeling,  —  here 
a  reflection  of  this  art-life  upon  industry  must  necessarily  take 
place,  so  much  the  more  so,  as  many  of  the  most  prominent 
artists  have  made  industry  the  sphere  of  their  principal  activity  in 
the  later  years  of  their  lives. 

The  central  point  of  this  development  is  formed  by  the  "  Art- 
Industrial  Association"  of  Munich,  by  whom  the  "Journal  for 
Art-Industry  "  has  been  published  since  1851,  many  volumes  of 
which  were  exhibited  as  an  evidence  of  the  exertions  of  the  associa- 
tion. Besides  these,  there  were  exhibited  a  large  number  of  draw- 
ings emanating  from  the  studio  of  the  association,  and  further 
illustrating  the  "Munich  style"  in  the  various  branches  of  art- 
industry. 

In  the  fountain  before  the  City  Hall  this  merry  combination  of 
figures  and  architecture  has  even  ventured  to  enter  upon  the 
domain  of  monumental  art.  In  the  Exhibition  it  was  to  be  met 
with  only  in  its  most  wanton  mood  in  diverse  vessels,  utensils,  &c. 
The  ornament  is  continually  dissolving  into  human  or  animal 
forms  ;  the  most  curious  things  are  built  up  with  picturesque  clev- 
erness, without  giving  offence.  Thus  the  claw  of  a  griffin  grows 
out  into  a  stag's  head,  the  antlers  of  which  support  a  drinking- 
horn  ;  a  harlequin  is  practicing  gymnastics  on  a  mug,  and  in  his 
accidental  position  forms  its  handle  ;  gnomes  and  nixes  desport 
themselves  in  every  corner ;  the  eye  is  amused  by  them,  and  ex- 
cuses the  frivolous  play  with  {esthetics  on  account  of  the  skill  and 
the  humor  with  which  these  things  are  made. 

The  Exhibition  showed  that  the  style  which  is  cultivated  at  the 
Royal  Art-Industrial  School  of  Munich  tends  more  especially 
towards  the  Renaissance,  although  older  classical  motives  are  also 
employed.  The  drawings  consisted  mostly  of  designs  for  decora- 
tions, which,  indeed,  appear  to  be  the  principal  aim  of  the  school. 
A  zealous  study  of  plant-forms  imparts  life  to  the  motives,  and 

1  "Flieqende  Blatter"  (Flying  Leaves),  a  humorous  weekly  journal,  pub- 
lished at  Munich,  now  in  its  sixty -second  volume.  —  Transl. 
4 


50  ART  EDUCATION. 

its  beneficial  influence  was  particularly  observable  in  the  colored 
decorative  studies.  The  ornaments  in  plaster  executed  by  the 
pupils,  mostly  from  small  sketches  by  Director  H.  Dyck,1  evidenced 
a  good  comprehension  of  form,  and  were  executed  very  delicately. 
The  same  is  true  of  the  wood-carvings  and  bronzes.  Figure-draw- 
ing was  more  feeble ;  but  the  course  of  instruction  was  likewise 
represented  systematically,  and  the  results  could  be  traced  step  by 
step,  which  was  not  the  case  with  the  Nuremberg  school. 

In  architectural  drawing,  there  were  to  be  found  studies  of 
Greek  and  Rom  an  monuments,  also  Renaissance  palaces  and  to'mbs 
with  all  their  rich  decorative  adornments,  Pompeian  mural  deco- 
rations, &c. 

The  plans  of  the  new  Polytechnicum  of  Munich,  as  well  as  the 
casts  of  the  "  Aegina"  of  the  Gtyptotheka,  which  are  published 
for  sale  by  this  institution,  were  also  exhibited. 

In  the  Hall  of  Industry,  finally,  we  met  with  the  exhibition  of  the 
"  School  for  Wood-Carving  "  at  Werdenfels,  near  Partenkirchen. 
The  excellent  specimens  exhibited  by  it  showed  that  more  consist- 
ent forms  are  by  degrees  becoming  current  in  the  unconstrained 
naturalistic  style  there  prevalent,  and  that  aesthetic  rules  are 
slowly  taking  the  place  of  the  empty  brilliancy  of  execution,  in 
which  the  Swiss  notoriously  excel. 

WURTEMBERG.  —  For  years  Wurtemberg  has  taken  the  lead  of 
all  other  German -States. in  the  cultivation  of  industrial  education  ; 
and  even  to-day  it  is  in  possession  of  the  greater  number  of  the 
schools  of  this  kind,  relatively  speaking.  At  the  last  Paris  Expo- 
sition, the  achievements  of  these  schools  made  an  imposing 
impression,  and  in  Vienna  they  likewise  formed  the  centre  of 
attraction  in  the  German  Educational  Exhibition.  The  numerous 
drawings,  modellings,  and  other  art-industrial  works,  took  up  a 
large  part  of  the  Northern  wing  of  the  pavilion  of  Group  XXVI. 
of  the  German  empire,  in  part  serving  as  decorations  for  the 
walls,  and  in  part  being  exhibited  in  portfolios  or  in  showcases. 

It  was  surprising  to  see  that  the  work  is  everywhere  carried  on 

i  Hermann  Dyck,  Director  of  the  Art-Industrial  School  of  Munich,  died 
March  25,  1874.    His  place  has  been  filled  by  the  appointment  of  Eugeii 
reuther.  —  TransL 


GERMANY.     &>  51 

with  nearly  equally  good  results,  and  that  even  the  youngest 
schools  were  represented  by  the  most  praiseworthy  specimens. 
This  shows  how  excellently  the  whole  educational  system  of  Wur- 
temberg  is  organized  in  this  respect,  and  how  beneficial  unity  of 
system  is  to  education  itself. 

Unfortunately  the  results  only  of  the  schools  had  been  kept  in 
view  in  the  Exhibition,  and  the  method  had  not  been  illustrated 
by  successive  drawings ;  which,  in  the  presence  of  the  results, 
would  have  been  especially  desirable. 

Industrial  Improvement  Schools  are  at  present  to  be  found  in 
155  places  (110  cities,  45  villages)  of  the  kingdom  of  Wurtem- 
burg ;  and  these,  according  to  their  organization,  are  divided  into 
the  following  groups  :  — 

Improvement  Schools,  in  which  instruction  is  given  on  Sundays 
and  evenings,  in  the  industrial  and  commercial  branches,  and 
which  have  public  drawing  classes  (5). 

Improvement  Schools,  with  industrial  instruction  Sundays  and 
evenings,  and  public  drawing  classes  (15). 

Improvement  Schools  with  instruction  on  Sundays  and  evenings, 
without  public  drawing  classes  (92). 

Improvement  Schools  with  industrial  instruction  in  the  evening, 
without  instruction  on  Sunday's  (10). 

Drawing  Schools  simply,  without  further  instruction  (33) . 

The  number  of  pupils,  amounting  to  8,876  in  150  Industrial 
Improvement  Schools  in  1870-71,  rose  to  9,763  in  1871-72  in  155 
schools  ;  7,430  of  the  pupils  being  under,  and  2,333  over,  seven- 
teen 3*ears  of  age. 

Besides  these  schools,  the  country  possesses  of  technical  institu- 
tions of  learning,  the  Polytechnical  School  and  the  Building-Trades 
School  at  Stuttgart,  and,  for  the  special  cultivation  of  art,  the  Art- 
School  at  the  same  place. 

It  is  impossible  to  review  the  achievements  of  each  separate 
school  without  exceeding  the  space  at  command  ;  but  it  will  prob- 
ably suffice,  for  the  purposes  of  general  characterization,  to  touch 
upon  the  most  noteworth}^  only. 

In  freehand  drawing,  a  beginning  is  generally  made  with  the 
drawing-copies  by  Herdtle,  published  by  the  Royal  Commission 
on  Industrial  Improvement  Schools. 


52  ART  EDUCATION. 

This  excellent  work  has  also  naturalized  itself  in  most  of  the 
German  and  Austrian  schools,  and  is  especially  used  to  practice 
outline-drawing  in  systematic  progress  from  geometrical  ground- 
forms  to  curvilinear  ornament ;  at  the  same  time  it  offers  an 
opportunity  to  give  the  pupils  simple  exercises  with  the  brush  in 
laying  flat  tints.  When  a  certain  dexterity  of  conception  and  of 
technical  execution  has  been  reached,  object-drawing  is  taken  up, 
beginning  with  geometrical  forms,  but  immediately  passing  on  to 
ornaments  in  plaster,  at  first  in  outline,  and  by  degrees  in  shading. 

For  this  purpose  there  were  executed  in  the  modelling  institu- 
tion of  the  Ro}Tal  Wurtemberg  Central  Bureau  for  Industry  and 
Commerce,  a  series  of  more  than  four  hundred  plaster  models, 
which  are  also  arranged  progressively,  beginning  with  straight-line 
geometrical  forms,  and  then,  from  the  simplest  leaves,  passing  on 
to  richly  developed  ornaments  which  are  composed  for  given 
spaces,  thus  showing  their  eventual  practical  application.  In 
style,  the  motives  belong  almost  exclusive!}'  to  the  Renaissance, 
a  few  only  having  been  selected  from  the  Gothic'  and  the  older 
antique  styles. 

To  aid  in  the  transition  from  conventionalized  to  natural  plant- 
forms,  casts  of  plants,  &c.,  have  also  been  admitted  into  the  col- 
lection. For  figure-drawing  there  is  a  collection  of  casts  from 
antique  busts,  torsos,  limbs,  reliefs,  and  small  statuettes  ;  a  series 
of  models  for  the  study  of  theoretical  forms  has  likewise  been 
added.  A  large  part  of  this  excellent  collection  was  on  exhibi- 
tion, together  with  an  illustrated  price-list. 

The  drawings  from  casts  are  executed  throughout  with  crayon 
or  charcoal  upon  white  paper,  the  tint  being  carried  up  to  the  high- 
est light.  This  method  is  in  use  almost  universally  in  Germany, 
although  it  entails  the  greatest  waste  of  time,  and  the  tinted  paper 
of  the  French  would  be  preferable.  Occasionally  the  execution 
was  masterly,  and  the  patience  of  the  pupils  in  minutely  stippling 
out  the  tints  in  backgrounds,  sometimes  a  foot  square,  compelled 
admiration,  coupled,  however,  with  regret  for  the  time  spent 
upon  them.  The  most  extraordinary  feat  in  this  respect  had  been 
achieved  by  the  school  at  Rottenberg,  where  the  whole  ground- 
surface  in  large  decorative  pieces  for  panels  had  been  filled  in  with 
an  even  grain.  This  dwelling  too  long  upon  the  form  in  general, 


GERMANY.  53 

* 

is  also  the  reason  why  the  shadows  are  frequently  rendered  too 
dark,  so  that  the  drawings  from  models  no  longer  make  the  im- 
pression of  plaster,  but  look  like  bronze.  A  decided  emphasizing 
of  the  planes,  with  less  finish,  would  certainly  be  preferable  for  the 
study  of  form.  In  ornament,  which  always  obe}rs  a  distinct  rhythm, 
the  uncertainty  in  the  mastery  of  the  form  is  not  as  noticeable  as 
in  figure-drawing  —  a  fact  that  was  quite  apparent  in  some  of  the 
schools.  * 

Special  instruction  in  drawing  adapts  itself  to  local  necessities, 
and  in  most  of  the  institutions  very  superior  results  are  also 
attained  in  linear  drawing.  To  give  a  more  detailed  insight  into 
the  state  of  instruction  in  drawing  in  the  Industrial  Improvement 
Schools  of  Wurtemberg,  we  will  mention  a  few  of  the  schools, 
together  with  their  achievements,  as  follows  :  — 

Aalen.1  —  Principally  machine-drawings,  with  simple  outlines 
of  the  sections.  Modellings  in  wax  (mostly  in  plaster  casts)  of 
rich  Renaissance  ornaments,  gracefully  executed,  of  good  st}'le. 

Biberach.  —  Architectural  drawings,  some  of  them  treated  very 
effectively  in  color ;  building  in  bricl*; ;  Swiss  style ;  and  Renais- 
sance motives ;  also  purely  decorative  ornaments ;  large  pen- 
drawings  of  outline  ornaments ;  figure-drawing  tolerably  feeble. 
Of  modellings :  Renaissance  ornaments,  busts,  Thorwaldsen's 
relief  "  Day."  Wood-carving  :  Ornaments  for  panels,  frames,  &CM 
of  excellent  technical  execution. 

Ellwangen.  —  Architectural  drawings  beautifully  finished;  sys- 
tematic representations  of  projections  and  shadows. 

Esslingen. — Projection,  machinery,  architectural  details;  also 
small  landscapes  in  oil,  flowers,  &c.,  to  supply  the  wants  of  local 
industries. 

Geislingen.  —  Linear  drawing  is  treated  very  thoroughly  and  sys- 
tematically, also  the  most  important  points  in  perspective.  Tech- 
nical drawing  :  Principally  architecture  ;  good  designs  of  furniture 
also  deserve  to  be  mentioned.  Carving  in  ivory  being  a  promi- 
nent branch  of  industry  in  Geislingen,  small  ornaments  are  prin- 
cipally practiced  in  freehand  drawing,  and  these  are  succeeded  by 
the  forms  of  the  Renaissance  and  of  nature ;  the  ivory  carvings 

1  The  Industrial  Improvement  Schools  of  the  respective  places  are  always 
to  be  understood. 


54  ART  EDUCATION. 

on  exhibition  were  rather  overladen  with  ornament.  In  the 
larger  modellings  and  in  the  wood-carvings,  the  imitation  of 
German  motives  is  more  prevalent. 

Gmund.  —  Special  attention  is  paid  to  the  manipulation  of  the 
metals,  and  the  thorough  training  of  engravers,  chasers,  &c. 
Very  beautiful  drawings  from  antique  examples  were  exhibited,  as 
well  as  finished  works  in  metal  of  exquisite  execution. 

Giengen.  — Well  executed  ornaments  in  crayon  and  in  red  chalk 
from  casts,  and  building  drawings. 

Eliingen. — Architecture,  furniture,  vessels,  &c.,  some  of  them 
very  beautifully  carried  out  in  color. 

Hall.  —  Pretty  drawings  of  decorative  motives,  only  somewhat 
hard  in  color  ;  studies  in  descriptive  geometry. 

Heilbronn.  —  Nearly  all  branches  of  industrial  drawing;  beauti- 
fully drawn  ornaments  from  casts,  especially  worthy  of  notice. 
The  same  is  true  of  Balingen. 

Ludwigsburg.  —  Mostly  decorative  motives  in  color  for  decor- 
ators, paper-hangers,  &c.,  also  projection  and  machine  draw- 
ing. 

Sulgau.  —  Good  architectural  drawings  and  wood-carvings, 
principal!}'  in  the  Gothic  style. 

Ravensburg.  —  All  branches  of  drawing ;  above  all  beautiful 
projections  and  topographical  drawings ;  also  good  color-studies 
in  oil. 

Rottiveil.  — All  branches  of  drawing.  Freehand  drawing  prac- 
ticed with  all  materials  ;  special  mention  must  be  made  of  beauti- 
ful copies  from  Calame's  landscapes.  In  linear  drawing,  very 
pretty  projections  and  stone  construction.  Good  modellings  for 
architectural  decorations,  and  tasty  carvings  in  wood  and  ivory, 
were  likewise  exhibited. 

Rottenburg.  —  Beautiful  drawings  from  casts,  as  mentioned 
above ;  a  large  frame  carved  in  wood,  but  rather  overladen  with 
ornamental  work  ;  also  a  large  frame  of  a  more  architectural  nature, 
in  plaster,  and  very  humorous  groups  of  animals  in  wood. 

Scliweningen. — Principally  small  landscapes,  flowers,  &c.,  in  oil, 
such  as  are  used  by  the  manufacturers  of  clocks  in  the  Black 
Forest. 

The  Industrial  Improvement  Schools  of  Ulm,  Kirckheim,  Laup- 


GERMANY.  55 

helm,  Mergentheim,  Tubingen,  Neresheim,  Aethaussen,  Elingen, 
Blaubeuren,  Waldsee,  Herbertingen,  Spaichingen,  and  Horb  were 
likewise  represented  by  specimens  worthy  of  notice. 

The  " Women's  Work-School"  of  Reutlingen  exhibited  very 
tasty  needlework,  as  well  as  very  pretty  drawings.  Instruction 
in  drawing  and  coloring  in  this  institution  is  intended  to  lead  the 
pupils,  by  successive  stages,  to  the  invention  and  execution  of 
tasty  designs  for  the  various  branches  of  female  handiwork ;  the 
construction  of  geometrical  plane  figures  and  bodies  is  also  taught. 

The  "  School  for  Interior  Decorators  "  (painters)  of  Reutlingen 
likewise  exhibited  some  specimens  by  its,  pupils,  which,  however 
left  much  to  be  desired  in  regard  to  taste  ;  the  same  may  be  said 
of  the  designs  of  the  Weaving  School  of  Reutlingen,  which  were 
unsatisfactory  both  in  color  and  in  forms.  The  motives  of  the 
Weaving  School  at  Heidenlieim  were  somewhat  lighter  and  more 
graceful.1 

Stuttgart,  with  its  higher  schools,  and  as  the  central  point  of 
art-industrial  education,  naturally  had  also  more  important  results 

1  The  Industrial  Improvement  Schools  of  Wurteiriburg.  —  It  is  very  interesting 
to  note  the  population  of  the  various  towns  and  villages,  in  which  the  schools 
spoken  of  by  Prof.  Langl  are  located.  Some  of  them  are.  so  small  that  they 
cannot  he  found  in  any  "  Gazetteer"  or  geographical  hand-book.  The  follow- 
ing statistical  table  is  made  up  from  Bitter's  "  Geographisch-Statistisches 
Lexikon,"  Oth  edition,  1874.  Where  no  figures  are  given,  the  population  could 
not  be  learned. 

Aalen 5,552  Kircliheim  (unterTeck?)    .       .       .    5,863 

Aethausen Laupheim 4,090 

Balingen 3,212  Ludwigsburg 11,785 

Biberach 7,091  Mergeutheim 3,713 

Blau  Beureii 2,216  Neresheiin 1,133 

Elingen Ravensburg 8,433 

Ellwangen 4,145  Reutlingeu 14,237 

Esslingen 17,941  Rottenburg 6,145 

Ehingen 3,547  Rottweil 5,135 

GmUnd 10,739  Schweningen 4,314 

Geislingeii 3,334  Spaichingen 2,321 

Giengen 2,560  Stuttgart 91,623 

Hall 7,793  Sulgau 120 

Heilbronn 13,955  Tubingen 9.243 

Herbertingen 1,532  Ulm 26,290 

Heidenlieim 5,167  Waldsee 2,529 

Horb        .'  "~.  .  'V  '  ..'       .        .        .    2,071 

The  same  remark  holds  good  of  the  Austrian  schools.    The  question-mark  in 
the  following  list  indicates  that  there  are  several  places  in  Austria  of  the  same 


56  ART  E  DUG  AT  JON. 

to  show,  and,  in  continuation  of  what  has  so  far  been  said,  we 
must  now  speak  of  the  Royal  Wurtemberg  Art-Industrial  School. 
The  specimens  of  this  school  were  exhibited  in  the  middle  of  the 
pavilion,  in  a  pretty  decorative  arrangement,  so  that  the  various 
drawings  formed,  as  it  were,  an  architectural  whole.  The  com- 
mission had  taken  care  to  exhibit  all  the  branches  of  drawing  and 
modelling  which  are  practiced  in  the  institution.  In  style  the 
Renaissance  predominated,  but  there  were  also  very  beautiful 
studies  from  classical  monuments,  Pompeian  mural  decorations,  &c. 
High  praise  must  be  awarded  to  the  outline  ornaments,  to  which 

name,  leaving  it  undecided  which  place  is  alluded  to  in  the  report.  But  the 
towns  or  villages  so  marked  are  quite  insignificant. 

Asch       il>    i.f 9,405    Landskron 5,016 

Aussig      .......  10,933    Mondsee 1,240 

Bielitz 10,721    Petrowitz ? 

Briinn 73,771    Reicheuberg 22,394 

Carlstein  (Karlstein?)  ....      666    Rietz ? 

Gablonz 6,752    Rochlitz  (unter-Rochlitz?)  .       .       .    8,097 

Graz 81,119    Rothmiihl 3,267 


Gmund 1,900  Rumburg 

Graslitz 6,549  St.  Ulrich        .        .        .        .        .        .    1,096 

Hallein 3,614  Schonbach 2,640 

Hallstadt 1,671  Steinschonau 3,100 

Haida 2,069  Tachau 4,111 

Hochstadt 1,492  Vienna  (in  1864)     .       .       .       .        607,514 

Hohenelbe 5,316  Walkern 

Imst 2,236  Znaiiu 10,600 

Innsbruck 16,324  Zwittau 5,781 

For  further  information  on  technical  and  industrial  education  in  Wurtem- 
burg,  the  reader  is  refered  to  Mr.  John  Scott  Russell's  interesting  work  on 
"  The  Systematic  Technical  Education  of  the  English  People,"  London,  1809. 

It  will  be  seen  from  the  above  lists  that  all  these  schools  are  located  simply 
with  a  view  to  the  interests  of  the  industries  carried  on  in  the  various  places. 
The  idea  of  limiting  the  schools  according  to  the  population  is  not  entertained, 
nor  is  this  idea  justified;  for  a  town  containing  one  thousand  inhabitants 
carrying  on  a  special  trade,  certainly  has  more  need  of  such  schools,  than  a  city 
of  ten  thousand  inhabitants  carrying  on  no  special  trade.  There  are  a  number 
of  American  industries  which  might  be  improved  by  the  instrumentality  of 
these  schools.  Take,  for  instance,  the  Yankee  clocks.  The  clocks  of  the  Black 
Forest  are  no  better,  as  clocks,  yet  they  command  the  markets  of  the  world; 
while  the  Yankee  clock,  possessing  no  artistic  features,  generally  speaking,  is 
restricted  to  certain  markets.  But  then,  in  the  Black  Forest,  art-education  is 
a  matter  of  course,  while  in  America  it  is  generally  regarded  as  of  little  value. 
The  sewing-machine  is  also  awaiting  its  artistic  development,  not  so  much  in 
the  case  which  encloses  it,  but  rather  as  far  as  the  machine  itself  is  concerned. 
The  ne  plus  ultra  of  artistic  finish,  so  far,  appears  to  be  black  lacquer,  and  big 
blotches  of  mother-of-pearl.  In  the  hands  of  artists,  it  must  certainly  be 
capable  of  something  better.  —  Transl. 


GERMANY.  57 

relief  had  been  given  by  the  simplest  means  (one  tint  in  sepia) , 
which  is  certainly  quite  as  serviceable  for  industrial  purposes  as 
minute  finish  in  crayon.  Among  the  plastic  objects  exhibited, 
some  works  in  metal,  of  good  style,  deserve  to  be  especially  men- 
tioned. The  wood-carvings  gave  evidence  of  considerable  tech- 
nical skill  on  the  part  of  their  authors.  The  only  department 
of  sculpture  which  exhibited  more  weakness  was  the  figure  ;  but  as 
a-  matter  of  course  a  thorough  schooling  in  this  branch  among 
artisans  is  beset  with  great  difficulties.  The  anatonry  of  the  orna- 
ment resolves  itself  into  the  simple  rhythmical  development  of  the 
motive,  and  can  soon  be  attained  in  practice  ;  the  case  is  different, 
however,  with  the  human  figure,  in  which  the  forms  are  more  sub- 
ject to  caprice,  and  must  always  be  penetrated  by  an  intellectual 
idea.  The  drawings  of  figures  from  the  antique,  as  well  as  from 
nature,  made  a  better  showing.  In  linear  drawing,  classical 
examples  are  adhered  to  in  architecture,  as  well  as  in  decoration. 

The  Royal  Building  Trades  School  of  Stuttgart  exhibited  excel- 
lent specimens  by  its  pupils  in  all  the  branches  of  industrial  draw- 
ing, among  them  the  plans  of  its  own  stately  building.  On  two  of 
the  walls  of  the  southern  part  of  the  pavilion  there  were  to  be  seen, 
handsomely  arranged,  representations  of  buildings  in  various 
styles,  decorative  architectural  designs  (among  them  polychrome 
Greek  ornaments  of  exemplary  execution) ,  and  original  composi- 
tions by  the  pupils  in  the  department  of  architecture  and  of 
machine-building. 

It  is  the  principal  object  of  the  Building  Trades  School  to  train 
builders,  civil  and  hydraulic  engineers,  surveyors,  and  machinists. 
Instruction  is  divided  into  preparatory  and  special,  the  latter  being 
given  not  only  theoretically,  but  also  practically.  Practical  in- 
struction in  the  industrial  manipulations  which  can  be  acquired  at 
the  yard,  or  in  the  shop,  is,  however,  given  only  to  those  who 
happen  to  live  in  localities  where  such  knowledge  is  not  attainable. 
Up  to  the  year  1864  the  school  was  open  during  the  winter  only, 
but  in  1865  summer  courses  were  also  arranged  ;  and  since  then  the 
institution  has  expanded  in  various  directions. 

Excellent  specimens  were  also  exhibited  by  the  Evening  Classes 
and  by  the  Public  Drawing  Class.  Drawings  from  casts,  of  bril- 
liant execution,  were  especially  to  be  seen  among  those  by  the 


58  ART  EDUCATION. 

pupils  of  the  latter  institution.  The  heads  from  nature  were  more 
feeble.  The  pupils  of  the  Sunday  Course  for  Painters  likewise 
had  good  results  to  show  in  the  various  branches. 

The  Polytechnic  School  exhibited  the  plans  of  its  magnificent 
building,  as  well  as  autographs  of  buildings,  and  the  well-known 
collection,  "  Architectural  Studies,"  published  by  the  Society  of 
Architects  of  the  Polytechnicum  at  Stuttgart.  The  institution 
consisted,  in  the  school-year  1871-72,  of  a  mathematical  division 
(in  two  classes) ,  and  a  technical  division,  with  six  special  schools. 

The  Art-School  of  Stuttgart  exhibited  diverse  studies  from 
nature,  together  with  original  compositions  by  its  scholars. 
Among  the  latter,  a  summer  landscape  of  charming  conception, 
with  man}'  figures,  and  a  drawing  in  Schwind's  manner,  illustrat- 
ing the  tale  u  Siebenschon,"  especially  attracted  our  attention. 
The  studies  of  heads  in  oil  showed  very  good  intentions.  The 
results  of  the  study  of  the  figure  were  more  feeble. 

Before  closing  this  part  of  our  report,  we  must  also  speak  of 
drawing  in  the  People's  Schools  of  Wurtemberg.  According  to  an 
order  of  the  Royal  Ministry,  dated  May  21,  1870,  the  subject  is 
taught  in  the  People's  Schools  wherever  there  is  a  desire  for  it,  on 
the  one  hand,  and  the  necessary  teachers  can  be  had,  on  the  other  ; 
with  the  proviso,  however,  that  thirty  hours  per  week  for  instruc- 
tion in  all  subjects  shall  not  be  exceeded,  and  that  none  of  the 
other  compulsory  subjects  shall  be  slighted.  An}-  extension  of 
instruction  in  drawing  beyond  this  limit  is  left  to  mutual  agree- 
ment between  the  communal  authorities  and  the  teacher.  As  a 
rule,  instruction  in  drawing  does  not  begin  before  the  pupil  has 
reached  the  twelfth  year ;  and  its  end  and  aim  is  defined  to  be,  the 
attainment  by  the  pupil  of  an  understanding  of  form,  together 
with  some  dexterit}^  of  execution,  so  that  the  feeling  for  the  beau- 
tiful may  be  developed  and  exercised,  and  the  pupil  may  be  pre- 
pared for  usefulness  in  life.  According  to  the  regulations,  free- 
hand drawing  only  (without  mechanical  aids)  is  permitted,  at  first 
from  charts,  at  a  later  period  from  copies,  the  attention  being 
strictly  confined  to  outline-drawing.  The  specimens  on  exhibition 
showed  unity  of  system  throughout  (Herdtle's  examples) ,  and  the 
best  results.  The  outline  ornaments  were  executed  on  a  pretty 
large  scale,  which  can  only  be  of  advantage  in  the  People's 
Schools. 


GERMANY.  59 

The  results  of  drawing  in  the  Teachers'  Seminaries,  as  seen  at 
the  Exhibition,  gave  evidence  of  an  excellent  method  of  instruction 
in  freehand  as  well  as  in  linear  drawing.  In  the  first  course,  out- 
line ornaments  are  practiced  with  pencil  and  pen ;  in  the  second 
course,  geometrical  bodies,  shaded,  and  ornaments  from  casts,  in 
crayon  or  India  ink  ;  in  the  third  course,  blackboard-drawing  as  a 
preparation  for  practical  teaching.  Instruction  in  geometrical 
drawing  is  divided  between  geometrical  constructions,  projection 
in  its  application  to  architecture,  &c.  Very  good  work  was  shown 
b}'  the  Teachers'  Seminaries  at  Esslingen  and  at  Gmiind,  including 
topographical  and  building  drawing. 

In  the  drawings  of  the  "  Woman's  School  "  of  Stuttgart,  the 
careful  choice  of- tasty  motives  is  especially  to  be  emphasized, 
besides  their  beautiful  execution. 

The  work  by  the  convicts,  shown  in  good  studies  from  casts,  in 
ornaments  in  color,  machine  and  linear  drawings,  &c.,  also  de- 
serves to  be  mentioned. 

The  Commission  for  the  Industrial  Improvement  Schools  of 
Wurtemberg,  as  before  stated,  has  rendered  very  good  service  in 
providing  for  suitable  and  practical  copies.  The  "Schools" 
edited  by  E.  Herdtle  are  altogether  the  best  we  now  have  for  the 
first  stages  of  instruction,  a  fact  which  is  proven  by  their  wide  dis- 
semination. Of  these  "  Schools"  we  will, only  mention  here  the 
"Ornaments  of  the  Middle  Ages  and  the  Renaissance"  (drawn 
from  the  originals  by  F.  H.) ,  on  account  of  their  charming  motives. 
For  special  instruction  in  all  the  industrial  branches,  the  Commission 
has  published  a  series  of  copies,  which  for  simplicity  and  perspicu- 
ity of  representation,  as  well  as  for  suitable  selection  of  objects, 
leave  nothing  to  be  desired.  On  most  of  the  plates  the  drawing 
is  accompanied  by  a  short  explanatory  text. 

The  "  Copies  for  Technical  Freehand  Drawing,"  by  P.  Holder 
(mostly  for  iron-work),  are  good,  but  lack  a  pronounced  style. 
The  "Art  of  Shading,"  by  C.  Riess,  contains  very  beautiful 
problems  in  shadows,  curves  of  intensity,  &c.  Guido  Schreiber's 
"Studies  on  Bodies"  are  also  to  be  recommended  for  the  first 
stages,  as  showing  how  plastic  objects  are  to  to  be  represented. 
"  Stereometrical  Drawing  as  a  Preparation  for  Descriptive  Geom- 
etry," by  A.  Brude,  is  intended  to  be  used  in  the  transition  from 


60  ART  EDUCATION. 

geometrical  drawing  in  the  plane,  to  drawing  in  space,  as  practiced 
in  descriptive  geometr}-.  It  appears  to  us,  however,  that  it  would 
be  better  to  go  through  stereometry  at  once,  in  geometrical  pro- 
jection, with  good  aids  for  teaching,  if,  it  is  to  be  continued  at  all. 
"Drawing  Geometry,"  by  G.  Muller,  is  a  very  practical  little 
work,  by  means  of  which  the  pupil  can  principally  be  trained  in 
the  use  of  his  instruments.  The  "  Collection  of  Naturalistic  Orna- 
ments "  for  interior  decorators,  by  Ch.  Kammerer,  contains  neat- 
ly executed  plates  in  the  French  manner. 

As  a  world's  journal  of  art-industry,  the  "  Work- Shop,"  of 
Stuttgart,  was  exhibited  in  seven  languages. 

The  architectural  publications  of  Conrad  Wittwer,  Stuttgart, 
must  also  receive  honorable  mention. 

BADEN.  —  The  Grand  Duchy  of  Baden,  the  same  as  at  Paris  in 
1867,  participated  but  little  in  the  Educational  Exhibition  at 
Vienna.  The  Industrial  Improvement  Schools  receive  the  best  of 
care  in  this  countr}',  and  their  number  at  present  amounts  to 
forty- three  ;  their  aim,  however,  is  general  education,  rather  than 
special.  Great  attention  is  also  paid  to  the  education  of  the 
female  sex  since  1870. 

Specimens  of  the  work  of  pupils  were  exhibited  only  by  the 
Industrial  Educational  Institution  of  Carlsruhe.  Among  these 
specimens  most  of  the  industrial  branches  were  represented,  and 
the  decorative  designs  (vessels  and  furniture)  deserve  to  be  espe- 
cially mentioned  for  their  elegant,  tasteful  st}'le,  and  their  exact, 
artistic  execution.  Excellent  studies  from  Greek  and  Oriental 
(polychrome)  ornaments  must  likewise  be  noticed.  Of  model- 
ling there  was  but  little,  most  of  it  ornamental. 

Of  drawing-copies  there  were  exhibited,  "Ornamental  Drawing 
for  Citizens  and  Industrial  Schools,"  by  W.  Tonius  (Carlsruhe)  ; 
the  forms  represent  various  styles ;  the  execution  is  somewhat 
hard.  The  "Landscape  Studies,"  by  J.  W.  Schirmer  (died 
1863),  published  by  Vogelweider  (Carlsruhe),  have  been  repro- 
duced in  excellent  style,  and  will  also  be  a  welcome  gift  to 
the  friends  of  art,  as  a  memento  of  this  poetical  artist.  • 

PRUSSIA.  — Instruction  in  drawing  is  beginning  to  gain  a  better 


GERMANY.  61 

foothold  in  the  People's  and  the  Middle  Schools  of  Prussia, 
although  more  slowly  than  in  the  South  of  Germany.  The  Normal 
Plan  of  Instruction  of  the  year  1863  made  it  apparent  already, 
that  this  subject  was  favorably  looked  upon,  and  that  especial 
attention  was  to  be  devoted  to  its  cultivation  in  the  Intermediate 
Schools.  ,The  plans  of  instruction  forming  the  basis  of  the  Real- 
Schools  and  of  the  Gymnasia,  were  elaborated  at  the  time  by  a 
commission  of  artists  and  schoolmen,  and  certainly  left  nothing  to 
be  desired,  except  the  time  necessary  to  carry  them  out  to  their 
full  extent.  In  these  plans  the  subject  was  conceived  of  as  a 
vehicle  of  general  education,  and  was  therefore  considered  as  an 
integral  part  of  the  educational  system  of  all  the  higher  schools. 
Accordingly,  drawing  in  the  Real-Schools  must  be  a  preparation 
for  technical  and  artistic  pursuits ;  must  endeavor  to  reduce 
graphic  delineation  to  its  primary  geometrical  operations  ;  and  by 
practical  exercise  of  projection,  by  perspective  based  upon  mathe- 
matics, as  well  as  by  continued  practice  in  drawing  from  casts, 
must  develop  the  comprehension  of  space  and  of  form.  In  the 
Gymnasia,  in  which  the  oesthetical,  rather  than  the  technical 
phase  of  drawing  must  be  brought  into  prominence,  instruction  is 
divided  into  four,  in  the  Real-Schools  into  five,  courses  or  stages, 
which  are  independent  of  the  progress  of  the  pupils  in  the  general 
classes,  and  are  organized  according  to  the  abilities  of  the  pupils, 
and  their  progress  in  this  subject  itself.  It  is  further  directed,  that 
teaching  shall  commence  in  the  first  stage  with  the  general  knowl- 
edge of  form,  from  wall-charts  or  blackboard-drawings  ;  this  is  to 
be  followed  up  in  the  second  course  by  drawing  from  geometrical 
models,  as  well  as  from  copies,  both  ornament  and  figure  ;  and  to  be 
succeeded  in  the  third  and  fourth  courses  by  the  drawing  of  orna- 
ments from  casts,  the  practice  of  figure-drawing  being  continued. 
In  the  choice  of  the  copies  and  models,  special  attention  is  to  be 
paid  to  the  education  and  refinement  of  taste.  The  teacher  is  left 
perfectly  free  within  these  limits  in  regard  to  choice  of  method,  it 
being  remarked  very  correctly,  that  man}'  teachers  may  be  able  to 
reach  good  results  according  to  the  method  by  which  the}'  them- 
selves were  instructed,  while  they  might  fail  under  the  constraint 
of  another,  although  perhaps  in  itself  a  better  method,  with  which 
they  are  not  familiar  from  the  start. 


62  ART  EDUCATION. 

If  the  results,  in  the  Gymnasia  as  well  as  in  the  Real-Schools, 
have  not  thus  far  corresponded  to  the  intentions  of  this  plan  of 
instruction,  the  first  reason  for  this  failure  will  be  found  in  the 
fact,  that,  as  before  remarked,  too  little  time  has  been  set  apart 
for  the  subject.  With  only  two  hours  each  week,  the  long  intervals 
make  it  difficult  to  preserve  the  manual  skill,  and  stjll  more  so 
to  keep  up  the  interest,  which  is  principally  promoted  by  results. 
The  Royal  Prussian  Educational  Administration  did  not  exhibit 
any  of  the  works  of  the  pupils  of  the  Middle  Schools,  by  an 
examination  of  which  a  judgment  might  have  been  arrived  at. 
Looking  over  the  numerous  programmes  of  schools,  it  became 
apparent,  however,  that  in  most  of  the  institutions  the  desired  aim 
had  either  not  been  reached,  or  that  the  subject  is  looked  upon  and 
taught  in  a  manner  which  is  not  in  accordance  with  the  intentions 
of  the  plan  of  instruction.  Drawing  in  the  G3^mnasia  is  frequently 
classed  with  the  "accomplishments,"  which  sufficiently  indicates 
the  position  assigned  to  it  in  these  institutions.  Then,  again, 
there  are  to  be  found  class  reports,  according  to  which  the  drawing 
of  heads  is  begun  with  in  the  first  stage,  and  is  followed  up  by 
shaded  buildings  and  landscapes.  In  the  higher  classes  these 
latter  are  succeeded  by  "large  heads  in  crayon,  landscapes  with 
trees,  animals,  &c."  Even  with  the  most  talented  pupils  it  may 
be  doubted  whether  all  this  can  be  practiced  with  success  at  the 
rate  of  two  hours  weekly.  The  Real-Schools  are  not  much  more 
favorably  situated  as  regards  the  time  allotted,  the  small  addition 
in  the  number  of  hours  being  expended  upon  linear  drawing, 
which  must  be  practiced  in  them  to  a  greater  extent. 

It  is  well  known  that  there  are  two  classes  of  Real-Schools  in 
Prussia,  besides  the  higher  Citizens'  Schools,  which  latter  are  simi- 
lar in  their  organization  to  the  Real-Schools  of  the  second  class. 
The  institutions  just  mentioned  being  of  a  lower  order  than  those 
of  the  first  class,  as  far  as  the  sciences  are  regarded,  they  might 
offer  better  opportunities  for  the  cultivation  of  drawing.  But  even 
in  these  schools  it  depends  to  a  great  extent  upon  the  insight  of 
the  rector  for  the  time  being,  whether  the  importance  of  the 
subject  is  recognized,  or  not. 

According  to  the  General  Regulations  of  Oct.  15, 1872,  two  hours 
for  drawing  are  allotted  to  each  of  the  three  classes  of  the  Citizens' 


GERMANY.  63 

Schools.  The  paragraphs  in  question  are,  however,  so  "lawj-er- 
like  "  in  their  phraseology,  that  it  must  certainly  be  left  to  the 
respective  teachers  to  make  the  best  out  of  .them  for  their  subject. 
The  passage  reads  thus:  "  Stage  I.  Linear  drawing  from  draw- 
ings upon  the  blackboard  by  the  teacher,  reference  being  made  to 
their  geometrical  basis ;  Stage  II.  Geometrical  views  of  objects 
of  simple  form,  according  to  a  given  reduced  or  enlarged  scale ; 
copying  of  simple  shaded  examples  of  various  kinds  ;  Stage  III. 
Elements  of  perspective  ;  drawing  of  wooden  solids,  plaster  mod- 
els, and  natural  objects  ;  shading  in  black  crayon,  India  ink,  and 
sepia  ;  copying  of  finished  ornaments,  heads,  &c." 

The  complaints  frequently  made  by  the  teachers  of  the  higher 
technical  schools  of  Prussia,  that  the  pupils  coming  from  the  Mid- 
dle Schools  are  not  sufficiently  grounded  in  linear  drawing, 
apply  equally  well  to  freehand  drawing,  with  this  difference  only, 
that  the  latter  follows  no  further  practical  aim  above  the  Middle 
Schools,  while,  in  the  present  condition  of  things,  an  ideal  aim 
can  be  reached  least  of  all.  But,  however  isolated  the  subject  may 
still  be  in  the  Prussian  schools,  and  however  it  may  languish, 
especially  for  want  of  time,  it  is  all  the  more  pleasant  to  notice 
the  zealous  activity  of  the  drawing- teachers,  who  have  labored 
incessantly,  especially  of  late  years,  to  obtain  for  their  subject 
that  position  which  its  importance  demands.  For  this  purpose* 
they  have  formed  the  "  Societ}*-  for  the  Promotion  of  Instruction  in> 
Drawing,"  which  is  to  enable  them,  by  united  action  in  matters  of 
method,  copies,  &c.,  to  give  a  secure  basis  more  especially  to  elemen- 
tary instruction,  and  which,  by  means  of  periodical  exhibitions  of 
the  work  of  pupils  and  of  aids  for  teaching,  is  to  keep  them  informed: 
of  the  condition  of  this  branch  of  education,  as  well  as  to  provide 
the  opportunity  for  the  discussion  of  innovations  which  may  pre- 
sent themselves.  The  society  also  submitted  the  report  of  its 
committee  on  the  last  of  these  exhibitions,  held  in  1870r  which,  in 
its  critical  review,  gave  a  clear  presentation  of  the  state  of  draw- 
ing-instruction in  Northern  Germany.  As  this  report  owes  its 
origin  to  specialists,  some  notices  taken  from  it  may  serve  to  sup- 
plement the  deficiencies  of  the  following  review,  which  deficiencies 
necessarily  resulted  from  the  absence  of  specimens  by  the  pupils 
in  the  Exhibition  of  1873. 


64  ART  EDUCATION. 

In  the  "  General  Regulations  of  Oct.  15,  1872,"  two  hours  per 
week  in  drawing,  and  two  hours  in  the  "  science  of  space,"  which 
must  no  doubt  be  understood  as  the  science  of  form,  are  allotted 
to  the  higher  classes  of  the  Citizens'  Schools  (§13).  In  the  far- 
ther elaboration  of  this  point  (§  30),  the  regulations  go  on  to  say : 
"  In  drawing,  all  children  are  to  be  employed  simultaneously  and 
uniformly  ;  and,  by  continual  practice  of  the  eye  and  the  hand,  they 
are  to  be  enabled  to  copy  given  figures  on  a  reduced  or  an  enlarged 
scale,  with  the  aid  of  ruler,  measure,  and  compasses,  as  well  as  to 
give  geometrical  views  of  objects  of  simple  form,  such  as  utensils, 
garden-plats,  dwelling-houses,  churches,  and  other  bodies  offering 
straight  edges  and  large  planes.  Where  this  aim  has  been  reached, 
children  of  especial  talent  may  be  given  an  opportunity  to  draw 
from  copies." 

Domschke's  method,  which  had  before  been  in  use  for  a  number 
of  3^ears  in  all  the  Berlin  Communal  Schools,  has  therefore  been 
recommended  for  the  first  stage.  The  reporter  is  far  from  desiring 
to  pass  judgment  upon  this  method,  as  he  has  had  no  opportunity 
to  gain  an  insight  into  the  results  obtained  by  it,  nor  does  he 
wish  to  doubt  that  speedier  results  may  perhaps  be  obtainable  by 
it  in  the  science  of  form  proper.  But  it  seems  questionable, 
whether  the  pupils,  b}'  imitating  forms  with  mechanical  aids,  will 
attain  to  the  same  degree  of  clear  comprehension  which  will  be 
imparted  to  them  by  the  independent  reproduction  of  that  which 
they  see.  Until  now,  drawing  was  practiced  in  the  Communal 
Schools  of  Berlin  according  to  the  methods  of  Domschke  and  of 
Dupuis ;  and  it  \vas  intended  that  Domschke's  "  Guide"  should 
prepare  the  way  for  drawing  from  nature  by  Dupuis'  method. 
The  figures  were  drawn  upon  the  blackboard  on  a  large  scale  by 
the  teacher,  according  to  the  "  Atlas,"  and  were  copied  simul- 
taneously by  the  pupils,  by  the  aid  of  compasses,  rulers,  measuring- 
papers,  &c.  But  the  report  above  referred  to  states,  that  "  the 
facilities  offered  by  the  use  of  these  aids  from  the  very  beginning 
prevented  the  pupils  from  attaining  to  a  direct  and  clear  compre- 
hension, and  hindered  the  untrammelled  development  of  dexterity 
in  drawing,  which,  for  Dupuis'  method  especially,  is  so  very  neces- 
sary-" While  it  is  generally  questionable,  therefore,  whether  by 
.the  method  alluded  to  the  aim  can  be  reached  which  has  been  set 


GERMANY.  65 

for  drawing  in  the  People's  Schools,  it  is  absolutely  wrong  to  intro- 
duce pictures  of  landscapes,  animals,  and  figures  into  elementary 
instruction,  as  in  the  case  of  the  copies  by  Domschke.  But  the 
method  of  Dupuis,  on  the  other  hand,  by  which  the  empirical 
practice  of  perspective  is  aimed  at,  in  connection  with  freehand 
drawing  from  surfaces  and  from  solid  models,  is  quite  as  hazard- 
ous. This  would  demand  a  maturity  of  intellect  not  to  be  expected 
of  the  pupils  of  the  People's  Schools.  At  the  same  time,  if  the 
method  is  to  be  carried  out  with  any  success  at  all,  each  class 
must  contain  as  small  a  number  of  pupils  as  possible ;  but  it  is 
well  known  that  this  must  for  the  present  remain  a  devout  wish  on 
the  part  of  the  teachers. 

The  results  shown  at  the  exhibition  just  spoken  of  were  conse- 
quently quite  desultory,  and  made  it  clear  that  even  some  of  the 
teachers  were  wanting  in  the  necessary  knowledge  of  perspective, 
which,  of  course,  proved  fatal  to  the  success  of  the  method  from 
the  outset.  Many  of  the  schools  therefore  left  the  course  of 
instruction  which  had  been  prescribed  to  them,  and  devoted  them- 
selves to  "picture-making,"  which  at  least  does  not  destroy  the 
interest  of  the  pupils  in  the  subject,  although  nothing  positive  is 
to  be  learned  by  it. 

The  numerous  drawing-copies  for  the  first  stages  of  instruction, 
which  had  been  sent  to  the  World's  Fair  from  Berlin,  made  it  evi- 
dent, however,  that  this  evil  of  conflicting  methods  will  gradually  be 
obviated.  Among  these  examples,  the  "  Wall-C harts  for  Method- 
ical drawing,"  by  Herzer,  Jonas,  and  Wendler,  published  by  the 
society  in  question,  are  well  worthy  of  recommendation  as  practical 
aids  for  teaching.  Being  simple  in  their  forms,  the}'  are  easy 
of  comprehension.  Ed.  Eichen's  "Wall-Charts  for  Elementary 
Instruction  in  Drawing"  likewise  follow  the  correct  method,  as  a 
preparation  for .  modelling,  although  the  admissibility  of  natural 
flowers  may  perhaps  be  questionable.  On  the  other  hand,  how- 
ever, the  author  is  to  be  praised  for  the  emphasis  with  which  he 
dwells,  in  the  explanations,  upon  the  necessity  of  making  the 
scholar  draw  the  figures  as  large  as  possible,  and  of  compelling 
him  to  use  charcoal  for  his  first  sketch. 

At  the  exhibition  in  Berlin  (1870),  before  alluded  to,  the  draw- 
ings for  a  "  Graded  Series  for  Elementary  Instruction,"  by  Zim- 
5 


66  ART  EDUCATION. 

mermann  (teacher  In  Zwickau),  caused  a  sensation  which  was 
well  justified  ;  and  the  wish  was  then  repeatedly  uttered,  that  the 
author  might  make  his  plates  serviceable  to  other  schools,  by 
reproducing  them.  At  the  World's  Fair  they  were  likewise  to  be 
seen,  and  received  the  most  favorable  commendation  on  all  sides. 
When  speaking  of  Saxony,  we  shall  recur  to  this  work  more  in 
detail.  The  People's  School  at  Mayence,  which  is  so  excellently 
managed,  and  the  work  of  whose  pupils  received  such  high  praise 
at  the  time  of  the  Exhibition  in  1870,  unfortunately  did  not  send 
any  thing  to  Vienna. 

In  the  provinces  of  Prussia  drawing  is  well  managed  wherever 
the  teacher  happens  to  be  versed  in  the  subject.  This  observation 
very  naturally  leads  us  on  to  the  consideration  of  instruction  in 
drawing  in  Teachers'  Seminaries,  whence  its  cultivation  in  the 
People's  Schools  must  necessarily  proceed.  Down  to  the  present 
this  instruction  was  very  incomplete  ;  and,  according  to  the  report 
already  quoted,  it  was  frequently  in  danger  of  dying  out  altogether, 
owing  to  the  isolated  situation  of  some  of  the  seminaries.  But 
little  time  being  devoted  to  drawing,  and  the  drawing-teacher  being 
therefore  left  without  adequate  employment,  the  subject  was  gener- 
ally intrusted  to  one  of  the  teachers  of  science.  Suitable  teachers 
were  to  be  had  only  in  the  larger  cities,  which  is  the  reason  why 
good  results  were  generally  obtained  in  those  places.  If  the  later 
regulations  in  regard  to  drawing  in  the  People's  Schools  are  to  be 
carried  out,  the  government  will  have  to  see  to  it  that  due  attention 
is  paid  to  the  subject  in  the  seminaries. 

In  regard  to  instruction  in  industrial  drawing,  the  North  of  Ger- 
many is  also  still  far  behind  the  Southern  countries.  Not  ver}r  long 
ago,  every  thing  that  was  done  to  advance  art-industry  emanated 
from  private  societies  onty,  and  the  Prussian  government  was  the 
most  tardy  of  all  the  German  governments  in  de\soting  due  atten- 
tion to  this  most  important  factor  of  wealth.  Up  to  about  ten 
years  ago,  there  were  no  institutions  in  Prussia  capable  of  extend- 
ing adequate  support  to  the  art-industries,  the  onry  exception 
being  the  u  Society  of  Mechanics"  of  Berlin,  which  was  espe- 
cial^ instrumental  in  advancing  the  joinery  and  the  weaving  of 
Northern  Germany  to  a  certain  degree.  The  Municipal  Industrial 
Schools  provided  for  a  more  general  scientific  education,  rather 


GERMANY.  67 

than  for  special  instruction  ;  nor  was  the  organization  of  the  Im- 
provement Schools  calculated  to  make  them  the  hotbed  of  art- 
industrial  instruction,  while  the  Sunday  Free  Schools"  were  totally 
inadequate.  The  Royal  Industrial  Institution  has  more  of  the  char- 
acter of  a  technical  school,  and  the  Royal  Academy  of  Art  is  given 
to  art  exclusively,  so  that  even  from  this  side  little  was  to  be 
expected  for  art-industry.1 

By  the  Plan  of  Re-organization  of  March  21,  1870,  the  complete 
course  of  the  Prussian  Industrial  Schools  was  extended  to  three 
years,'  and  the  modern  languages  were  incorporated  into  the  plan 
of  instruction.  In  consequence  of  more  rigorous  conditions  of 
admission,  the  aim  of  instruction  was  elevated  for  most  of  the 
subjects,  and  linear  drawing  especially  profited  by  these  new 
arrangements.  Generally  speaking,  the  schools  retained  the  char- 
acter of  technical  schools,  which  is  quite  plainly  expressed  in  the 
preamble  of  the  Plan  of  Re-organization.  It  says:  "  The  youth 
entering  upon  industrial  life  must  be  able  to  examine  the  progress 
of  other  nations  in  the  departments  of  technology  and  of  industry, 
and  to  put  this  progress  to  use  in  his  own  interest,  as  well  as  in 
that  of  the  community.  To  this  end  it  is  necessary  that  he  should 
have  attained  a  knowledge  of  the  French  and  English  languages, 
sufficient  at  least  to  enable  him  correctly  to  understand  the  works 
written  in  them.  The  physical  conditions  of  the  earth's  surface, 
its  relation  to  the  aquatic,  vegetable,  and  animal  world,  must  not 
be  unknown  to  him.  Finally,  he  needs  an  insight  into  the  history 
of  the  development  of  nations  and  of  states,  into  their  intercourse, 
and  their  commercial  relations  with  each  other." 

It  is  apparent,  that  these  higher  industrial  institutions  are  not 
intended  for  the  education  of  the  working  people,  but  that  they 
are  only  fitted  to  offer  to  the  wealthier  classes  the  opportunity  for 
general  improvement  in  harmony  with  the  spirit  of  the  times.  The 
organization  of  preparator}"  classes,  as  "  Lower  Industrial  Schools," 
is  left  to  the  respective  communes  wherever  it  may  be  necessary. 
Art  Schools  and  Industrial  Schools  of  a  more  comprehensive  kind  are 
at  present  to  be  found  in  Prussia  only  in  Berlin,  Dantzic,  Breslau, 

i  Concerning  the  condition  of  art-industrial  instruction  in  Prussia  up  to  the 
year  18(>G,  compare:  "The  Advancement  of  Art-Industry  in  England,  and  the 
Position  of  this  Question  in  Germany,"  by  Dr.  H.  Schwabe,  part  iii.  p.  188,  &c. 


68  ART  EDUCATION. 

Erfurt,  and  Magdeburg.  As  for  the  rest,  special  schools  in  Prussia 
are  but  slightly  developed  even  to-day  ;  an  exception  is  made  only 
by  the  department  of  manufactures,  in  which  a  satisfactory  ad- 
vance in  this  respect  is  to  be  noted.  But  the  need  of  such  schools 
is  becoming  more  apparent  from  year  to  year,  and  by  degrees  the 
government  is  likewise  beginning  to  look  more  favorably  upon  the 
matter.  Immediately  after  the  war  with  France,  the  authorities  of 
the  various  industrial  towns  of  Prussia  were  called  upon,  in  a  cir- 
cular issued  by  the  Ministry  of  Commerce  and  Industry,  to  follow 
the  example  of  France  in  the  organization  of  Drawing  and  Indus- 
trial schools;  and  their  attention  was  directed  to  the  industrial  im- 
portance of  these  schools,  and  to  the  fact  that  they  form  the  true 
basis  of  the  wealth  of  France.  Regulations  in  regard  to  teachers 
of  freehand  drawing  and  modelling  at  the  Industrial  Schools  were 
prepared  at  the  same  time. 

It  was  impossible  to  judge  from  the  Exhibition  how  far  these 
efforts  have  since  been  realized.  Only  the  u  Society  of  Mechanics  " 
of  Berlin  had  provided  a  comprehensive  presentation  of  its  activ- 
ity, as  regards  the  organization  and  the  development  of  its  schools. 
Statistical  tables,  reports  up  to  the  year  of  the  Exhibition,  and  the 
plans  of  the  building  of  the  society,  were  submitted. 

Together  with  the  lectures  on  scientific  specialties,  drawing  in 
all  its  various  branches  receives  the  most  careful  attention  in  the 
schools  of  the  society  ;  and  at  the  last  International  Exhibition  at 
Amsterdam,  the  specimens  exhibited  by  these  schools  were  honored 
by  the  silver  medal.  As  a  considerable  portion  of  the  members 
belong  to  the  building  trades,  and  as  a  special  theoretical  and 
practical  knowledge  in  drawing  in  this  branch  appeared  to  be  desir- 
able, the  society  in  the  year  1864  organized  a  special  school  for 
building-mechanics,  divided  into  four  progressive  courses,  in 
which  the  pupils  were  educated  up  to  a  point  which  enabled  them 
to  pass  the  examination  for  master-builders.  The  attendance  was 
very  large,  especially  in  view  of  the  inducement  held  out  by  the 
final  aim  of  the  school ;  and  the  number  of  the  pupils  is  still  quite 
respectable,  although,  by  the  new  industrial  laws  of  Northern 
Germany,  the  examination  of  mechanics  has  been  done  away  with. 
According  to  the  report,  a  still  more  suitable  organization  will  be 
introduced  into  these  special  courses  during  the  winter  of  1873-74. 


GERM'ANY.  69 

Of  the  Royal  Prussian  Provincial  Industrial  Schools,  only  the 
institution  at  Saarbriicken  had  sent  specimens  ;  and  this  example 
sufficed  to  show,  that  in  the  schools  of  this  class  drawing,  as  a  rule, 
is  undoubtedly  taught  by  more  efficient  teachers  than  in  the  com- 
munal institutions.  The  verdict  on  these  schools,  as  given  at  the 
Berlin  Exhibition  of  1870,  in  which  they  were  represented,  was 
almost  identical.  The  progress  from  simple  geometrical  ground- 
forms  to  full}'  developed  ornament,  according  to  the  wall-charts  by 
Fiirstenberg,  teacher  in  the  school  at  Saarbriicken,  was  nicely  illus- 
trated b}r  the  drawings  submitted ;  and  the  method  as  well  as  the 
results  are  deserving  of  undivided  praise.  The  drawings  from  casts, 
ornaments,  and  figures  were  of  the  most  delicate  execution,  and, 
to  the  taste  of  the  reporter,  were  finished  almost  too  minutely  "  a 
la  litliograpliie  "  for  this  purpose. 

The  drawings  from  casts  by  the  pupils  of  the  drawing  school  of 
the  Museum  Wallraf-Richartz  in  Cologne,  under  the  manage- 
ment of  its  director,  Niessen,  were  equally  attractive.  The  delicate 
modulation  of  the  form  rivalled  the  precision  of  the  outlines. 

Specimens  of  the  achievements  of  the  Mechanics'  Improvement 
School  of  the  Industrial  Society  of  Nassau  were  also  exhibited, 
which  deserved  full  praise,  especially  in  linear  drawing,  for  their 
exact  and  clear  execution,  as  well  as  for  the  practical  course  of 
instruction.  Newer  and  fresher  motives  would,  however,  be  desira- 
ble in  decorative  drawing,  as  well  as  in  architecture.  Plenty  of 
good  things  are  now  to  be  had !  The  course  of  instruction  in 
ornamental  drawing  is  correct. 

The  Prussian  Educational  Administration  also  exhibited  the 
plans  of  the  buildings  of  the  Industrial  Schools  at  Brieg,  Gleich- 
witz,  Cassel,1  Miihlheim,  of  the  Teachers'  Seminary  near  Mett- 
mann,  and  of  the  Rhenish- Westphalian  Polytechnicum  at  Aachen, 
the  latter  in  the  style  of  the  early  Italian  Renaissance,  and  of 
imposing  effect. 

As  regards  linear  drawing  in  the  scientific  and  educational  insti- 
tutions, it  remains  to  be  remarked,  that  its  real  use  is  unfortu- 
nately very  generally  overlooked,  and  that  the  positive  results  do 

1  This  institution  also  exhibited  very  fine  models  of  the  framework  of 
roofs,  and  a  thread-model  of  a  hyperboloid  of  three  axes  (constructed  by 
Director  Wiecke,  executed  by  Ackeruiauu). 


70  ART  EDUCATION. 

not  tally  at  all  with  those  shown  upon  paper.  As  a  part  of  math- 
ematics, it  is  especially  intended  to  accustom  the  pupils  to  spon- 
taneity in  severe  logical  thinking  in  space,  and  at  the  same  time 
to  habituate  them  to  exact  and  careful  work.  Too  often,  how- 
ever, the  last  point  only  is  attended  to,  and  brilliant  technical 
dexterit}T  is  all  that  is  attempted.  The  various  problems,  which 
the  pupil  ought  to  develop,  and  to  solve  for  himself  from  the 
demonstrations  by  the  teacher,  are  simply  copied  from  examples, 
and  thus  the  subject  is  deprived  of  its  peculiar  aim.  There  is 
nothing  more  deadening  to  the  intellect  of  the  pupil,  than  the 
copying  of  a  drawing  which  he  does  not  understand,  and  in  which 
he  only  finds  the  various  constructive  guiding-lines,  by  prolonging 
them  to  the  edge  of  the  paper,  and  then  transferring  these  points 
to  his  board  like  a  scale. 

Very  naturally  the  subject  is  treated  differently  in  the  special 
schools,  where  the  practical  application  is  directly  connected  with 
the  theory.  It  was  regretted  by  many  visitors,  that  the  high 
schools  proper,  such  as  the  Royal  Industrial  Academy  and  the 
Royal  Building  Academy,  had  sent  no  specimens  of  their  work  to 
the  Exhibition,  as  they  are  both  wont  to  gather  an  abundance  of 
laurels  on  occasions  like  this. 

The  first  of  these  institutions  was  called  into  life  by  Beuth  in 
1831,  and  at  that  time  had  only  13  pupils;  in  1869  the  number 
had  risen  to  608,  but  in  1871  it  fell  to  281  in  consequence  of  the 
war.  Since  then  it  has  again  rapidly  increased.  The  school 
exhibited  only  two  glass  cases,  containing  its  excellent  collection 
of  models  of  parts  of  machines  for  the  study  of  mechanics,  which 
were  the  subject  of  marked  attention  on  the  part  of  specialists. 

The  pupils  of  the  Royal  Building  Academy  exhibited  the  wall- 
charts  for  art-historical  instruction  in  use  in  the  institution,  and 
the  "  Examples  and  Studies  "  executed  from  the  designs  of  Prof. 
C.  Botticher,  a  magnificent  collection  for  the  illustration  of  art- 
historical  lectures  as  well  as  for  studies  in  cop}'ing.  We  may  men- 
tion also,  that  the  "  Grammar  of  Ornament,"  edited  by  E. 
Jacobsthal,  according  to  the  principles  of  C.  Botticher's  "Tec- 
tonics of  the  Greeks,"  was  exhibited  as  an  aid  for  teaching  in 
higher  architectural  schools.  The  students  likewise  exhibited-  the 
autographed  drawings  made  by  them,  as  studies  of  architectural 


GERMANY.  71 

monuments.  The  publication  of  these  drawings  commenced  in 
1872.  Besides  being  well-chosen  and  neatty  executed,  they  offer 
an  advantage  in  this,  that  they  are  all  drawn  to  the  same  scale, 
which  facilitates  comparative  study  very  materially.  This  inter- 
esting work,  of  which  four  parts  have  already  appeared,  began  with 
antique,  ancient  Christian,  and  Romanesque  architecture,  and 
will  embrace  the  works  of  the  Gothic  style  and  of  the  Renaissance, 
down  to  modern  times.  Incidentally  it  may  be  remarked,  that  the 
price  of  twenty-five  silver  groschens,  for  each  part,  is  amazingly 
cheap. 

The  influence  of  Schinkel  made  itself  felt  to  such  a  degree, 
more  especially  in  the  architectural  schools  of  Berlin,  that  his 
spirit  still  animates  their  productions ;  and,  if  his  creative  power 
has  not  been  inherited  by  his  school,  he  has  at  least  left  to  it 
his  artistic  principles.  The  character  of  the  technical  tendencies 
of  architecture  in  Berlin  was  shown  most  conspicuously  by  the 
more  important  publications  in  this  department.  The  world- 
renowned  firm  of  Ernst  &  Korn  truly  forms  the  central  point  for  the 
whole  of  Germany,  for  publications  of  this  kind ;  and  the  works' 
exhibited  by  it  occupied  nearly  a  whole  section  of  the  middle  tract 
of  the  pavilion  of  Group  XXVI.  It  would  lead  too  far  were  it 
attempted  here  to  review  all  the  later  issues.  These  works  are 
well  known  to  specialists  everywhere,  and  a  simple  mention  of  the 
praiseworthy  activity  of  the  firm  must  therefore  suffice. 

Of  other  more  important  publications  concerned  with  drawing 
and  art-education,  and  to  be  seen  at  the  Exhibition,  the  "  Wall- 
Charts  of  Antique  Life  and  Art,"  by  Prof.  E.  v.  d.  Launitz,  must 
be  placed  at  the  head  of  the  list.  The  introduction  of  art-scientific 
instruction  into  the  Middle  Schools  began  with  these  charts  ;  and 
through  their  instrumentality  the  question  as  to  the  necessity  of 
this  stud}'  was  first  fairl}'  started.  The  work  has  been  widely  dis- 
seminated, and  does  not  need  any  further  recommendation.  The 
"  Ornaments  of  all  the  Classical  Epochs  of  Art,"  by  W.  Zahn 
(1870),  are  very  beautifully  executed  in  color,  but  too  small  to  be 
of  use  as  copies.  The  "  Ornamental  Copies,"  by  Bogler  (Wiesba- 
den, Roth)  are  distinguished  by  simplicity  and  perspicuity  of 
form;  the  "  Ornaments,"  by  J.  A.  Miiller,  issued  by  the  same 
publisher,  also  deserve  to  be  mentioned. 


72  ART  EDUCATION. 

Domschke's  "  Drawing  of  Ornaments,"  in  two  crayons,  is 
not  as  recommendable  ;  the  motives  are  stale,  and  the  execution 
hard  and  black.  The  "  Drawing-school  in  Wall-Charts,"  by  Tro- 
schel,  is  good  as  far  as  instruction  in  form  and  in  ornament  is  con- 
cerned ;  the  continuation  in  figure-drawing  is  objectionable  ;  the 
charts  for  projection  are  superfluous.  Projection  must  be  demon- 
strated by  the  teacher,  and  the  figures  must  be  drawn  upon  the 
blackboard  by  him. 

The  "  Berlin  Systematic  Drawing  School,"  by  W.  Hermes,  was 
represented  by  its  jubilee  edition  of  1872,  in  nineteen  volumes. 
For  amateurs  these  things  may  perhaps  do ;  for  serious  instruc- 
tion in  drawing  they  are  not  fitted. 

The  various  pictures  for  the  lower  grades  of  object  teaching 
were  surprisingly  deficient.  With  the  exception  of  Schnorr's 
Bible  Pictures,  none  of  them  rose  above  the  level  of  the  ordinary 
picture-sheets  for  children. 

SAXONY.  —  The  exhibition  made  in  the  Pavilion  of  Education  by 
the  Royal  Saxonian  Government  principally  embraced,  according 
to  the  preftice  of  the  special  catalogue,  "  only  such  aids  for  teaching, 
and  other  objects  for  educational  purposes,  as  owed  their  origin 
to  the  savant's,  schoolmen,  and  manufacturers  of  the  kingdom." 
But  further  on  we  find  it  stated,  "  that  even  in  this  respect  it  was 
impossible  to  present  a  complete  picture,  as  only  very  few  of  the 
numerous  and  important  works  relating  to  the  subject,  and  ema- 
nating from  the  university  of  the  country  and  from  its  technical 
high  schools,  had  been  sent  to  the  Exhibition." 

Anj-  further  information  as  to  the  reasons  for  this  omission  was 
not  supplied ;  but  it  appears  that  the  question  of  space  had  pre- 
vented a  more  comprehensive  display  of  the  Saxonian  Educational 
Exhibition.  This  can  only  be  regretted,  as  it  is  well  known,  that 
education  in  Saxon}T,  both  general  and  industrial,  occupies  a  very 
high  position.  In  regard  to  general  arrangements  and  statistics, 
the  necessary  information  was  given  by  a  report  which  had  been 
specially  written  for  the  Exhibition. 

Industrial  instruction  in  Saxony  is  adapted  to  the  necessities 
of  the  working  classes,  and,  compared  with  Prussia,  the  special 
schools  have  been  developed  much  more  extensively.  Drawing 


GERMANY.  73 

consequently  plays  a  more  important  part  throughout  the  Indus- 
trial Schools  of  the  country  as  it  becomes  a  necessity  wherever 
special  branches  are  to  be  successfully  cultivated.  The  education 
usually  received  in  the  People's  Schools  is  accepted  as  a  preparation 
by  most  of  these  institutions  ;  the  courses  extend  through  three 
years  (in  winter  only) ,  the  pupil  continuing  to  work  at  his  trade  in 
the  mean  time.  This  is  the  case,  for  example,  in  the  Building  Trades 
Schools  of  Chemnitz,  Leipsic,  Plauen,  Zittau,  and  Dresden.  Sax- 
ony also  possesses  a  considerable  number  of  Weaving  Schools, 
among  which  those  at  Chemnitz,  Glauchau,  Frankenberg,  Oedema, 
Werdau,  Gross-Sch6nau,.Hainichen,  Limbach,  and  Mittweida  are 
the  most  prominent.  The  wooden-ware  and  toy  manufactories  of 
the  Saxonian  Ore-Mountains  have  also  received  some  attention  of 
late,  and  drawing  and  painting  schools  have  been  opened  in  Seiffen 
and  Griinhainicheu  for  their  benefit. 

As  previously  remarked,  there  was.  little  to  be  ceen  of  speci- 
mens by  the  pupils,  only  the  Technical  High  Schools  at  Dresden 
and  at  Frankenberg  having  made  a  display  of  any  extent.  Draw- 
ing-copies, models,  and  other  aids  for  instruction,  made  up  the  rest 
of  the  exhibition. 

By  the  People's  School  law  of  1873,  drawing  has  also  been  made 
compulsory  in  the  lower  schools,  in  some  of  which,  however,  it 
had  already  been  carefully  practiced  before.  The  drawing-copies 
of  H.  Schmidt  and  W.  Zimmermann  (teachers  in  the  Middle 
Schools  of  Zwickau)  must  here  be  mentioned  before  all  others  as 
very  superior  aids  for  teaching  in  the  first  stages  of  instruction. 
According  to  Schmidt's  method,  the  simplest  geometrical  ground- 
forms  are  drawn  upon  the  blackboard  by  the  teacher,  to  give  to 
the  pupils  an  insight  into  the  formation  of  the  figures ;  at  a 
later  period,  the  more  complicated  forms,  together  with  their 
guiding-lines,  which  are  given  in  red,  are  copied  freehand  from 
examples.  The  lines  of  shadow  must  be  found  by  the  pupil  him- 
self, the  teacher  having'previously  explained  them,  after  which  the 
back-ground  and  intermediate  planes  are  filled  in  with  flat  tints. 

Zimmermann' s  copies  pursue  the  same  method  on  the  whole. 
The  forms  are  marked  in  strong  black  outlines,  and  relieved  by 
colored  tints,  which  adds  measurably  to  their  distinctness  at  a  dis- 
tance. The  guiding-lines,  which  the  pupil  must  erase  after  he  has 
sketched  his  drawing,  are  given  in  red  dots. 


74  ART  EDUCATION. 

These  methods  banish  all  mechanical  aids,  and  aim  at  the 
education  of  the  eye,  as  well  as  of  the  hand.  As  a  basis  for  the 
copies  in  question,  which  are  exemplary  as  far  as  method  is  con- 
cerned, the  "  Little  Draughtsman,"  by  F.  W.  Tretau,  professor 
in  Chemnitz,  has  been  used,  while,  for  the  ornamental  forms,  the 
works  of  Herdtle  and  Weishaupt  have  principally  been  drawn 
upon.  The  results  of  instruction  in  drawing  in  the  Real-School  at 
Zwickau  deserved  the  fullest  praise  in  every  respect.  In  the  higher 
classes  of  this  school,  the  transmutation  of  forms,  as  an  exercise 
in  composition,  is  also  practiced  with  very  good  success.  By 
filling  in  the  intermediate  spaces  between  the  flat  .ornamental 
designs,  the  drawing  receives  a  more  lively  appearance,  and,  at 
the  same  time,  the  pupil  is  given  an  opportunity  to  accustom  him- 
self to  the  use  of  the  brush.  In  the  first  class  of  the  same  insti- 
tution, drawing  is  practiced  from  the  Dresden  casts,1  on  paper  of  a 
light  tint,  color  being  again  used  to  subdue  the  background.  The 
Girls'  Improvement  School  of  the  same  place  submitted  very  cred- 
itable specimens. 

The  specimens  by  the  pupils  of  the  Real-School  in  Chemnitz 
were  less  attractive,  no  definite  plan  of  instruction  being  apparent 
in  them.  Among  the  specimens  there  were  also  studies  of  the 
effects  of  light  and  shade  on  geometrical  bodies,  executed  on  a 
large  scale  in  crayon,  which  takes  a  good  deal  of  the  time  of  the 
pupils,  and  is  of  little  use  to  them.  The  Citizens'  School  of 
Werdau,  and  the  State  School  of  Planitz,  on  the  contraiy,  had 
very  pretty  specimens  to  show,  which  permitted  a  clear  insight 
into  the  course  of  instruction. 

The  specimens  of  drawing  exhibited  by  the  schools  of  Dresden 
made  it  evident,  that  in  the  capital  of  the  county,  more  than  else- 
where, this  branch  of  instruction  is  still  very  uns}'stematically 
cultivated.  Flowers,  painted  landscapes,  even  whole  human  fig- 
ures, were  to  be  met  with  in  the  lowest  classes ;  besides  these 
subjects,  projection  and  perspective  are  practiced,  which  ought  not" 
to  be  expected  of  children  of  such  tender  years.  The  school  of 
the  eighth  district  probably  went  farthest  astray  in  this  direction, 
as  it  exhibited  large  heads  after  Julien  (stumped)  together  with 

1  These  casts  are  described  on  p.  75.  —  Transl. 


GERMANY.  75 

I 

landscapes  after  Hermes.  Better  results,  with  a  more  systematic 
course  of  instruction,  were  shown  by  the  first  Citizens'  School,  the 
First  Communal  School,  and  the  Free  School  of  the  society,  "  Zu 
Rath  und  That "  ("  for  council  and  help  ").  In  the  Girls'  School, 
a  good  beginning  is  made  with  Frobel's  drawing-method,  but  the 
road  to  a  clear  comprehension  of  form  is  blocked  too  quickly  by 
taking  up  flowers  and  landscapes. 

Of  the  Teachers'  Seminaries  only  the  one  at  Friedrichsstadt- 
Dresden  had  exhibited  drawings,  showing  the  course  of  instruc- 
tion in  four  stages.  A  beginning  is  made  with  Tretau's  "Little 
Draughtsman,"  which  is  succeeded  by  Herdtle's  ornaments,  and 
eventually  by  drawing  from  nature,  at  first  from  geometrical 
wooden  models,  and  then  from  ornaments  in  plaster. 

Besides  the  drawing-copies  alluded  to  as  being  in  use  in  the  schools 
of  Zwickau,  the  plastic  "  Models  for  Freehand  Drawing  and  Mod- 
elling," issued  by  the  Royal  School  for  Modelling  and  Pattern- 
Drawing  in  Dresden,  must  also  receive  honorable  mention.  These 
models  were  designed  by  Profs.  Krumbholz  and  Hanel,  and  are 
intended  to  continue  the  instruction  in  drawing,  from  the  elemen- 
tary stage  up  to  the  round.  The  collection  consists  of  three 
series, — the  first  embracing  leaves  in  symmetrical  as  well  as  in 
natural  arrangement,  together  with  ornamental  motives,  these  lat- 
ter principally  in  the  style  of  the  Italian  Renaissance  ;  the  second 
series  comprises  larger  details  of  ornaments  in  successive  develop- 
ment, up  to  complete  ornaments  (in  the  same  style)  with  refer- 
ence to  their  local  application ;  while  the  third  series  embraces 
pure  severe  ornamentation  on  the  one  hand,  and  examples  of  a 
naturalistic  tendency  on  the  other,  thus  demonstrating  to  the  more 
advanced  pupils  how  plant-forms  may  be  utilized  fqr  ornamental 
purposes.  The  publication  of  this  collection  was  not  undertaken 
as  a  business  speculation.  The  models  owe  their  origin,  in  the  first 
instance,  to  the  necessity  of  providing  the  institution  which  pro- 
duced them  with  good  plastic  examples,  fitted  to  educate  the  taste 
and  the  feeling  for  the  beautiful ;  and,  as  it  was  desired  to  enable 
other  institutions  to  share  in  the  benefits  to  be  derived  from  the 
use  of  the  models,  the  price  of  the  casts  (executed  in  the  casting- 
shop  of  the  institution)  has  been  placed  so  low  that  even  the 
poorer  schools  can  afford  to  buy  them.  Series  I.  ( twelve  models) 


76  ART  EDUCATION. 

costs  six  thalers  ;  Series  II.   (twelve  models) ,  nine  thalers  ;  Series^ 
III.  (nine  models),  ten  thalers. 

The  choice  of  motives  in  these  models,  and  their  systematic  group- 
ing, must  be  called  excellent,  while  the  execution  is  truly  exem- 
plary. In  original  models  even,  the  edges  are  but  seldom  found 
as  sharp  and  as  clean  as  in  these  casts,  which  are  herewith  warmly 
recommended  to  all  institutions. 

Other  smaller  works  by  various  authors,  which  were  likewise 
exhibited,  did  not  offer  any  thing  specially  noteworthy.  Selt- 
mann's  models  for  instruction  in  drawing  (wooden  solids  of  vari- 
ous shapes  capable  of  forming  a  variety  of  figures)  are  somewhat 
clumsy.  Frobel's  useful  stigmographic  copies  for  the  first  stages 
of  instruction  are  well  known.  As  aids  for  object  teaching,  there 
were  exhibited  the  Bible  Pictures,  by  Schwarz  and  by  C.  Ehren- 
berg;  also  "  German  History,"  in  pictures  by  various  authors, 
and  Overbeck's  magnificent  "  Atlas  of  Greek  Art-Mythology,"  for 
the  higher  educational  institutions.  Two  volumes  of  this  exten- 
sive work,  "  Zeus  "  aud  "Hera,"  have  so  far  been  issued. 

The  Royal  Polytechnic  School  of  Dresden  exhibited  specimens 
by  the  students  ranging  through  all  the  branches  of  technical 
drawing,  together  with  models  of  bridges.  The  specimens  by  the 
mechanical  section  were  especially  interesting,  including  a  large 
number  of  plates  which  represented  the  machinery  of  a  flax-yarn 
spinning-mill,  and  of  a  paper-manufactory.  The  engineer  section 
submitted  a  project  for  a  bridge  across  the  Elbe  at  Dresden,  plans 
for  railroads,  viaducts,  geodetical  work,  &c.  Among  the  models 
there  were  many  which  were  executed  from  the  designs  of  Dr.  E. 
Winkler,  now  professor  at  the  Viennese  High  School,  while  he  was 
yet  assistant. at  the  Dresden  school. 

The  Polytechnicum  of  Frankenberg  likewise  exhibited  the 
achievements  of  its  students  in  beautiful  arrangement,  embracing 
.numerous  portfolios  and  books  from  the  preparatory  class  (mostly 
studies  in  descriptive  geometry) ,  and  excellent  specimens  from  the 
special  schools  (principally  machine-drawings) . 

The  exhibition  of  Saxonian  -toys,  arranged  by  the  commission 
for  the  advancement  of  this  branch  of  industr}T,  must  also  be  men- 
tioned. A  well-justified  effort  is  now  making,  to  give  even  to  the 
first  pictures  put  into  the  hands  of  the  child  a  character  which 


GERMANY.  77 

will  awaken  a  feeling  for  form ;  and  to  reach  this  end  it  will 
also  be  necessary  to  introduce  a  better  taste  into  the  to3*s  manu- 
factured for  commerce,  so  as  to  educate  the  eye  to  a  feeling  for 
the  beautiful.  In  the  Saxonian  Ore-Mountains,  this  industrj'  has 
been  traditional  among  the  people  for  hundreds  of  j'ears,  and  its 
produce  is  scattered  all  over  the  world.  The  commission  alluded 
to  is  endeavoring  gradually  to  improve  it,  —  a  beautiful  idea, 
which  deserves  full  recognition. 

It  has  been  before  remarked,  that  the  absence  of  the  work  of 
the  pupils  of  the  Saxonian  Improvement  Schools  was  greatly  to  be 
regretted.  The  careful  attention  paid  to  drawing  in  the  Industrial 
Schools  of  Saxony  was  made  apparent  by  the  report  of  the  Roj'al 
Saxonian  Educational  Administration  (pp.  27-33),  previously 
cited,  in  which  the  organization  of  the  various  institutions,  their 
division  into  categories,  &c.,  was  explained  in  detail. 

HESSIA.  —  The  Grand  Duchy  of  Hessia  exhibited  almost  noth- 
ing but  specimens  by  the  pupils  of  the  Artisans'  and  Improvement 
Schools.  These  institutions,  the  first  of  which  were  opened  in 
Darmstadt,  Mayence,  and  Giessen  in  1838,  have  increased  consid- 
erabl}'  since  then,  so  that  now  each  little  town  in  the  countiy  pos- 
sesses one  of  them.  The  attendance  is  voluntary  everywhere ; 
and,  until  quite  lately,  the  instruction,  to  which  apprentices  and 
journeymen  are  admitted,  was  gratuitous  ;  at  present,  the  pupils 
are  charged  a  moderate  tuition-fee  (six  to  thirty  kreutzers  per 
month) ,  but  the  notoriousl}'  poor  are  exempted  from  its  payment, 
and  in  some  of  the  schools  are  even  provided  with  the  necessary 
writing  and  drawing  materials  free  of  charge. 

The  main  stress  in  instruction  is  laid  upon  technical  drawing, 
to  which  are  added  the  other  branches,  such  as  geometiy,  arith- 
metic, style,  &c.,  with  reference  to  practical  wants.  In  view  of 
the  shortness  of  time,  the  schools  confine  themselves  to  that  which 
is  the  most  necessary  and  useful  for  the  working-man,  while  the 
branches  of  education  of  lesser  importance  are  passed  over.  No 
premiums  are  given  to  the  pupils ;  but  every  jrear  their  work  is 
submitted  to  a  special  commission,  by  whom  it  is  examined,  and 
reported  upon.  The  general  part  of  this  report  is  published, 
while  the  part  devoted  to  special  criticism  is  communicated  confi- 
dentially to  the  school-committees  and  teachers. 


78  ART  EDUCATION. 

The  Hessian  Industrial  Association  has  rendered  great  service 
to  these  schools,  whose  influence  upon  the  ^industries  is  so  bene- 
ficial. The  first  impetus  toward  their  organization  was  given  by 
this  society,  and  it  has  since  done  all  in  its  power  to  advance  the 
schools,  and  to  increase  their  number.  But  the  most  important 
part  of  its  activity  consisted  in  the 'encouragement  which  it  gave 
to  the  publication  of  practical  and  suitable  copies.  The  basis  for 
this  excellent  collection  for  all  branches  of  industry  was  laid  by 
the  former  secretary  of  the  society,  the  present  Grand  Ducal 
Upper  Building  Councillor  Rossler.  The  "  Drawing  Copies  for 
the  Artisans'  Drawing  Schools  in  the  Grand  Duchy  of  Hessia,"  as 
well  as  the  "Technical  Designs,  and  Designs  for  the  Various 
Branches  of  Industry,"  which  were  issued  at  a  later  period,  have 
gone  through  repeated  editions,  and  have  been  disseminated  far 
be}Tond  the  limits  of  the  countr}T  for  the  schools  of  which  they  were 
originally  designed.  B}'  reason  of  their  simple,  practical  repre- 
sentation, they  will  always  remain  an  excellent  aid  for  teaching 
in  all  industrial  schools.  The  activity  and  the  care  which  the 
society  in  question  has  devoted  to  the  advancement  of  the  indus- 
tries were  most  beautifully  illustrated  by  these  examples  at  the 
Exhibition. 

In  view  of  the  fact  that  these  schools  have  evening  and  Sunday 
courses  only,  the  work  of  their  pupils  must  not  be  criticised  as 
severely  as  if  it  were  the  production  of  da3'-schools ;  it  showed 
honest,  conscientious  effort  throughout,  ver}r  generally  also  accom- 
panied by  good  results.  Machine-drawing  is  principally  culti- 
vated ;  but  some  of  the  schools  exhibited  also  very  neat  freehand 
drawings  from  copies  and  casts.  For  the  benefit  of  technical 
linear  drawing,  it  would  appear  desirable,  however,  to  pay  more 
attention  to  projection ;  many  of  the  schools  were  very  deficient 
in  it.  Very  good  exercises  were  to  be  seen  in  outline  ornament, 
which  is  more  useful  than  painstaking  finish  in  shading,  wherever 
there  is  lack  of  time,  even  for  the  better  schools. 

Of  further  aids  for  teaching  in  drawing,  the  models  by  J.  Schro- 
der again  held  the  first  rank,  the  same  as  at  previous  exhibitions. 
This  rich  collection  contains  representations  in  geometry,  descrip- 
tive geometry,  machine  building,  stone  constructions,  railroad 
building,  carpentry,  metallurgy,  and  agriculture.  Schroder's  insti- 


GERMANY.  79 

tution  is  so  well  known  eve^where  by  its  excellent  productions, 
that  a  detailed  description  appears  to  be  quite  superfluous  here. 

Frederic  Losser  also  exhibited  models  for  instruction  in  descrip- 
tive geometry,  the  solids  being  of  wood,  and  placed  upon  planes, 
upon  which  their  projections  were  drawn,  together  with  the  con- 
struction-lines. Very  instructive  apparatus  for  perspective,  b}r  the 
same  author,  must  likewise  be  mentioned. 

Large  wall-charts  for  elementary  instruction  in  drawing  were 
exhibited  by  J.  Kumpa  (published  by  W.  Peyerle,  Darmstadt), 
which  progress  systematically  from  simple  geometrical  elements  to 
ornament.  The  forms  are  broad,  delineated  in  a  dark  tint  upon 
white,  and  the  work  can  be  highly  recommended  for  the  first  stages 
of  instruction. 

Besides  the  Industrial  Schools,  the  Real-School  of  Darmstadt 
was  also  represented  by  specimens  from  the  hands  of  its  pupils ; 
and,  indeed,  very  successfully.  The  lead-pencil,  however,  would 
be  preferable  to  the  crayon  for  the  first  stages.  But  the  verdict 
upon  the  manner  in  which  drawing  is  continued  in  this  school 
must  be  less  favorable,  as  there  is  no  fixed  principle.  This  is  true, 
even  in  a  still  higher  degree,  of  the  Gymnasium  in  Darmstadt,  by 
which  drawings  had  also  been  sent. 

HAMBURG.  —  There  is  hardly  another  city  in  Germany  at  pres-~ 
ent,  in  which  drawing  is  taught  as  carefully  and  as  conscientiously 
as  in  Hamburg.  By  the  united  action  of  the  intelligent  and  capa- 
ble teachers  employed  in  the  General  Industrial  School  of  the 
cit3r,  a  definite  method  of  teaching  has  developed  itself  in  this 
institution  (now  also  introduced  into  the  People's  Schools),  which 
deserves  to  be  called  exemplary  in  its  well-ordered,  gradual  prog- 
ress. The  favorable  impression  made  upon  the  visitor  by  the 
exhibition,  was  not,  however,  to  be  alone  attributed  to  the  excel- 
lent results  which  were  shown,  but  also  to  the  painstaking  arrange- 
ment, the  conscientious  adjustment  of  the  whole,  by  means  of 
which  the  aim  of  the  exhibition  —  to  give  an  insight  into  methods 
and  results  —  was  completely  attained.  There  were  on  exhibition 
specimens  of  the  achievements  of  the  Elementary  Schools,  the 
General  Industrial  and  the  Building  Trades  School,  and  of  the 
Industrial  School  for  Girls ;  the  systematic  course  of  instruction 


80  ART  EDUCATION. 

was  shown  by  the  usual  drawings,  arranged  upon  revolving  stands. 
Before  entering  upon  our  review,  we  will  endeavor  to  give  a  short 
general  sketch  of  the  organization  and  the  arrangement  of  the 
institution  under  the  excellent  management  of  O.  Jessen. 

The  General  Industrial  School  in  Hamburg  was  opened  in  1865  ; 
its  aim  being  to  provide  the  scientific  knowledge  and  artistic  edu- 
cation whfch  is  necessary  to  all  who  are  engaged  in  industrial  pur- 
suits, but  which  cannot  be  acquired  in  the  workshop. 

Alongside  of  the  other  scientific  and  commercial  branches,  the 
widest  field  is  given  to  drawing ;  and,  taking  the  various  classes 
together,  not  less  than  218  hours  each  week  are  devoted  to  it, 
which  are  distributed  as  follows  :  — 

Hours. 

Freehand  drawing 66 

Drawing  with  the  aid  of  compasses 28 

Special  drawing  for  building-mechanics,  joiners,  &c 8 

Special  drawing  and  lecture  for  shipbuilders 6 

Special  drawing  for  machinists,  locksmiths,  &c 8 

Special  drawing  for  tinsmiths,  &c 4 

Special  drawing  for  painters,  sculptors,  &c 12 

Special  drawing  for  lithographers 8 

Drawing  from  living  plants  and  animals 8 

Forms  and  color  applied  to  art-industry 2 

Drawing  and  designing  of  ornaments 8 

Decorative  painting 10 

Modelling  in  clay 6 

Elementary  drawing  for  boys 44 

Instruction  is  given  on  week-days  from  five  to  nine  in  the  even- 
ing, and  on  Sundays  from  eight  to  twelve  in  the  morning. 

The  School  for  Building-Mechanics,  under  the  same  management, 
offers  a  thorough  and  comprehensive  theoretical  education,  and 
special  training  in  drawing.  The  complete  course  can  be  finished 
in  three  winters  ;  112  hours  each  week  are  given  to  drawing,  which 
are  divided  among  the  various  branches  as  follows  :  — 

Hours. 

Freehand  drawing 30 

Drawing  with  the  aid  of  compasses .  10 

Descriptive  geometry 18 

Architecture,  construction,  estimates,  working-drawings    ....  54 


GERMANY.  81 

Instruction  is  given  daily  from  eight  o'clock  in  the  morning 
until  seven  in  the  evening,  with  the  necessary  intermissions. 

In  the  General  Industrial  School  there  are  also  three  additional 
courses  of  elementary  drawing  for  boys. 

Yearly  exhibitions  of  the  work  of  the  pupils  are  held  at  Easter, 
but  no  premiums  or  other  marks  of  distinction  are  distributed.  • 

In  the  united  institutions  there  are  at  present  employed,  besides 
the  director,  18  teachers,  and  15  assistant  teachers.  The  number 
of  pupils  rose  to  1161  in  the  winter  half-year  of  1872-73.  This 
number  is  sufficient  evidence  of  the  practical  management  of  the 
institution,  but  its  excellent  reputation  is  mainly  owing  to  its 
success  in  drawing. 

The  method  of  elementary  instruction  may  be  briefly  stated  as 
follows  :  The  pupils  begin  with  drawing  in  squares,  practicing  the 
straight  line  in  the  various  directions,  in  its  combination  in  frets, 
borders,  &c.,  progressing  gradually  to  more  complicated  star- 
shaped  figures.  The  teacher  draws  upon  the  blackboard,  which  is 
divided  into  squares,  the  pupils  at  the  same  time  drawing  upon 
slates,  and  at  a  later  period  into  books.  This  is  followed  up  by  a 
short  but  thorough  exercise:  1,  changing  a  figure  into  its  oppo- 
site ;  2,  transformation  of  the  opposites ;  and,  3,  combining  new 
forms.  Finally  the  teacher  also  causes  the  pupils  to  draw  figures 
into  the  squares,  from  figures  which  he  has  drawn  upon  the  black- 
board without  squares.  At  this  stage  the  instruction  therefore 
adheres  in  general  to  the  principles  of  Frobel. 

The  next  thing  is  drawing  from  printed  wall-charts,  at  first  in 
classes,  then  in  sections,  and  at  last  individually.  Instruction  in 
drawing  is  separated  from  systematic  instruction  in  the  knowledge 
of  form.  The  wall-charts  offer  only  plane  figures  in  front  view, 
and  without  guiding-lines.  The  latter  must  be  found  by  the 
pupils  themselves  under  the  direction  of  the  teacher.  A  com- 
mencement is  made  with  straight-line  figures,  which  are  drawn 
simultaneously  upon  the  blackboard  b}r  the  teacher  ( from  Dr. 
Stuhlmann's  Wall-Charts),  and  these  are  followed  up  by  curvi- 
linear ornamental  forms  (from  the  Wall-Charts  by  H.  Wohlien).1 
When  the  pupils  have  acquired  the  necessary  skill  in  these 

i  According  to  a  private  communication  H.  Wohlien's  charts  only  will  be 
used  in  future. 

6 


82  ART  EDUCATION. 

exercises,  drawing  from  objects  is  taken  up  with  each  pupil  indi- 
vidually. 

Each  pupil  (sometimes  also  two  or  three)  draws  from  a  sepa- 
rate model,  which  is  placed  before  him  at  a  distance  of  from 
1  to  1.5  metres. 

The  pupils  must  acquire  the  facility  of  discerning,  estimating, 
and  representing  the  changes  caused  by  the  perspective  by  means 
of  simple  observation  in  gauging  with  their  lead-pencils.  The 
beginning  is  made  by  F.  Heimerdinger's  wooden  models  ;  these 
are  succeeded  by  simple  models  in  plaster,  and  by  utensils,  with 
reference  to  light  and  shade. 

In  the  upper  sections  of  the  girls'  classes  the  drawing  of 
designs  for  -embroidery  is  added  to  the  previous  subjects,  the 
pupils  being  first  made  acquainted  with  the  most  important  ele- 
mentary forms,  then  led  to  the  application  of  a  given  form  to  vari- 
ous uses,  and  finally  instructed  in  the  making  of  original  designs. 

In  the  Industrial  Schools,  drawing  is  practiced  from  models  only, 
at  first  simply  in  outline,  then  gradually  progressing  to  shading^ 
the  various  means  of  representation  being  employed  in  the  course 
of  the  instruction.  Figure-drawing  is  practiced  only  by  those 
whose  calling  requires  it. 

The  specimens  exhibited  gave  proof  that  all  branches  of  draw- 
ing receive  careful  attention  in  the  institution,  that  the  study  of 
ornament  is  supported  by  the  study  of  plant-forms,  and  that  the 
incitement  to  self-activity  in  composition  is  not  neglected. 

The  objects  exhibited  by  the  pupils  of  the  special  courses  for 
decorators,  joiners,  &c.,  showed  in  the  practical,  simple  construc- 
tion of  the  forms,  and  in  the  correct  formation  and  application  of 
ornament,  that  the  school  follows  with  zeal  in  the  track  of  the 
reformator}-  tendencies  which  are  making  way  for  themselves  in 
England  and  in  Austria.  In  the  drawings  of  the  objects,  which 
drawings  are  not  to  be  used  as  pictures,  but  are  produced  simply 
with  a  view  to  their  practical  execution,  the  readiest  means  are 
employed,  and  all  superfluous  painting  and  time-taking  finish  is 
avoided. 

Drawing  and  modelling  only  are  practiced  in  the  institution ; 
and  it  is  left  to  the  opportunities  and  to  the  diligence  of  the  indi- 
vidual pupils  to  execute  in  their  shops  the  designs  which  they 


GERMANY.  83 

have  made  in  the  school  under  the  direction  of  their  teachers, 
This  is  a  very  excellent  means  of  transplanting  the  advantages  of 
the  school  directly  into  the  industries,  and  therebj"  keeping  alive 
the  interest  in  the  school  among  the  tradesmen.  Several  objects 
were  on  exhibition  which  had  been  produced  through  the  instru- 
mental^ of  the  institution  in  this  manner,  and  which  gave  evidence 
of  a  very  refined  taste.  Specially  prominent  among  these  objects 
were  the  works  of  the  joiners.  In  modelling  (plaster  and  wax) 
ornamental  and  figure  subjects  had  been  executed,  and  the  exact, 
severe  treatment  of  the  forms  deserved  all  praise. 

Linear  drawing  is  carried  on  quite  as  systematically  as  free- 
hand drawing,  and  the  geometical  constructions  always  find  their 
application  in  practical  examples.  Truly  excellent  work  Afas  espe- 
cially shown  by  the  School  for  Building-Mechanics,  which  also 
exhibited  very  pretty  architectural  designs.  The  execution  of  the 
drawings  was  as  precise  as  it  was  simple  ;  and  so-called  exhibition- 
drawings,  only  calculated  to  catch  the  eye  of  laymen,  were 
nowhere  to  be  seen. 

The  St.  Pauli  Industrial  School,  which  is  under  the  care  and  the 
administration  of  the  General  Industrial  School  since  1870,  also 
submitted  very  good  work. 

Although  the  Industrial  Schools  of  Hamburg  were  not  brilliant 
in  pompous  tableaux,  rather  contenting  themselves  to  exhibit  their 
achievements  to  the  public  in  a  more  modest  form,  they  never- 
theless attracted  the  attention  of  specialists  to  a  high  degree,  and 
gave  thorough  satisfaction  on  all  sides,  for  the  very  reason  that 
their  appearance  was  so  unostentatious. 

The  institution  sent  almost  all  its  teachers  to  visit  the  exhi- 
bition at  Vienna;  and  the  increased  experience  there  gathered 
will  no  doubt  contribute  to  the  further  development  of  the 
schools.1 

In  1867  there  was  also  opened  in  Hamburg  a  Girls'  Industrial 
School  (instruction  during  the  da}7) ,  which  embraces  all  the  branches 
of  general  education,  and  in  which  drawing  is  likewise  cultivated 

1  It  was  only  to  be  regretted  that  the  Hamburg  Industrial  Museum  had 
but  a  limited  supply  of  funds  to  make  purchases  of  art-industrial  objects  at 
the  World's  Fair.  In  this  respect  the  collections  of  Germany,  Austria,  and 
Ilussia  had  been  more  abundantly  provided  for. 


84  ART  EDUCATION. 

with  especial  care.  In  the  higher  classes  of  this  school  attention 
is  devoted  more  particularly  to  the  designing  of  patterns.  The 
instruction  commences  with  the  representation  of  simple  linear 
ornaments,  borders,  &c.,  executed  from  slight  sketches  ;  and  this  is 
succeeded  by  attempts  at  composition,  for  rosettes,  decorations 
for  flat  surfaces,  &c.,  in  their  application  to  the  dress,  and  for 
other  domestic  purposes. 

The  drawings  and  finished  objects  which  were  exhibited  gave 
evidence  of  surety  in  the  handling  of  form,  and  of  a  health}'  feel- 
ing in  original  composition.  Many  of  the  patterns  invented  by 
the  pupils  of  the  institution  have  found  their  way  into  various 
journals  of  fashion.  The  specimens  by  the  pupils  of  the  "  Society 
for  the  •Advancement  of  Female  Industrial  Activity "  likewise 
deserve  honorable  mention. 

The  Girls'  School  of  the  Women's  Society  in  Paulsenstift  also 
submitted  drawings,  which  illustrated  the  practical  character  of 
the  method  in  use  in  Hamburg.1 

I  Industrial  Schools  at  Hamburg.  — According  to  the  last  yearly  report  (1874) 
of  the  "  General  Industrial  School,  and  School  for  Building-Mechanics,"  the  city 
of  Hamburg  has  voted  eight  hundred  thousand  thalers  (about  six  hundred 
thousand  dollars),  for  a  building  which  is  to  accommodate  the  school  in  ques- 
tion, together  with  the  Hamburg  Real-School  and  the  Industrial  Museum. 
The  rooms  set  apart  for  the  Industrial  School  will  embrace  nineteen  drawing 
and  modelling  halls,  seven  class-rooms  for  scientific  instruction,  several  rooms 
for  collections,  and  the  necessary  offices,  &c.  The  great  service  which  the 
Industrial  Museum  renders  to  the  school  is  fully  acknowledged  in  the  Report, 
and  the  importance  of  instruction  in  drawing  in  the  People's  Schools  is  thus 
alluded  to:  "  It  is  of  equally  great  importance  to  the  activity  of  the'  Industrial 
School,  that  instruction  in  drawing  is  carried  out  rigidly  and  systematically  in 
the  Hamburg  People's  Schools.  Even  now  (i.e.,  after  drawing  in  the  People's 
Schools  has  been  taught  only  a  short  time)  many  of  the  pupils  come  to  the 
school  with  a  much  better  preparation  than  heretofore;  and  it  is  therefore 
possible  to  make  good  draughtsmen  of  them  while  they  are  still  apprentices." 
The  "  Industrial  School  for  Girls"  also  possesses  a  building  of  its  own,  which 
was  commenced  in  1872.  This  school  was  called  into  life  by  the  "Society  for 
the  Advancement  of  Female  Industrial  Activity."  Being  a  private  eiitei-- 
prise,  the  cost  of  the  building,  one  hundred  thousand  marks  (about  twenty-five 
thousand  dollars)  was  raised  by  subscription;  but  the  city  donated  the  land 
(twenty  thousand  feet)  upon  which  it  stands. —  Transl. 


FRANCE. 

WITH  no  nation  has  drawing,  as  such,  played  a  more  important 
part,  for  upwards  of  a  century,  than  with  the  French.  In.  truth, 
it  might  be  said,  that  their  wealth  is  owing  principally  to  their 
drawing-schools,  which  are  the  mainstays  of  their  industry,  even 
to-day.  We  would  have  to  go  far  back  into  the  past  did  we  wish  to 
seek  for  the  causes  which  have  enabled  the  French  to  raise  them- 
selves to  the  mastery  of  the  world  in  the  departments  of  art  and  of 
art-industry,  and  to  maintain  themselves  as  the  recognized  leaders 
of  taste  down  to  the  very  present.  The  first  impulse  towards  the 
emancipation  from  blind  submission,  on  the  part  of  other  nations, 
was  given  by  the  contests  at  the  World's  Fairs ;  and,  under  the 
leadership  of  art-science,  a  campaign  was  opened  against  the 
weaknesses  and  the  defects  of  established  French  custom. 
England  energetically  took  the  lead ;  Austria  and  Germany  fol- 
lowed, the  latter,  however,  only  in  part.  Thanks  to  the  Museums 
and  Art  Schools,  the  reform,  which  took  its  rise  at  the  London 
Exhibition  of  1851,  has  advanced  victoriously  thus  far,  and  has 
produced  a  change  of  forms,  even  in  France.  But  with  the  French 
—  highly-gifted  artistically  as  they  are,  and  with  past  successes 
upon  which  they  can  justly  look  with  pride  —  the  inherited  tradi- 
tions are  too  strongly  rooted  to  make  a  rapid  revolution  possible. 

It  cannot  be  gainsaid  that  all  efforts  in  the  direction  of  art, 
although  they  arise  unconsciously  in  every  civilized  nation,  can  be 
superintended,  directed,  and  fostered  much  more  readily  to-day 
than  in  former  times.  This  is  first  of  all  owing  to  the  fact,  that,  as 
a  result  of  the  great  activity  displayed  in  the  field  of  art-scientific 
research,  the  classics  of  the  past  have  been  put  at  our  disposal, 
and  can  be  used  as  a  means  for  the  education  of  taste  by  being 
presented  to  the  people  in  collections.  But  besides  these  we  have 

85 


86  ART  EDUCATION. 

also  the  drawing-schools,  or,  more  generally  speaking,  instruction 
in  art,  by  means  of  which  a  direct  influence  can  be  brought  to  bear 
upon  the  productions  of  art  and  of  art  industry.  In  England  and 
in  Austria,  these  means  for  the  reform  of  taste  are  in  successful 
operation.  In  France,  museums  and  collections  have,  of  course, 
been  in  existence  all  along,  but  they  were  only  called  to  mind  again, 
as  a  means  of  art-industrial  education,  by  the  opposition  which 
used  them  as  a  basis  of  operations  in  its  warfare  against  inherited 
French  traditions  in  matters  of  art.  The  energetic  efforts  lately 
made  in  France  to  exert  a  purifying  influence  upon  the  education 
of  taste,  by  instruction  in  drawing,  cannot  be  mistaken.  But  little 
value  was  formerly  attached  in  the  French  drawing-schools  to  the 
cultivation  or  the  perfection  of  any  definite  tendency  in  style. 
The  celebrated  national  art  of  the  French  was  brilliant  only  in 
technical  dexterit}',  in  the  facility  of  imitation,  in  exterior  qualities, 
in  all  of  which  it  stands  unsurpassed,  even  to-day.  Henceforth, 
however,  the  position  of  their  industiy  will  depend  upon  the  measure 
of  success  with  which  they  may  apply  their  technical  skill  to 
scientific  and  purely  artistic  efforts.  Undoubtedly  the  competition 
at  the  Exhibition  of  1873  has  again  exercised  a  far-reaching 
influence  upon  France. 

The  fact  that  the  external  qualities  —  the  easy  and  the  graceful 
on  the  one  hand,  the  pompous  and  the  theatrical  on  the  other  — 
should  have  principally  developed  themselves  in  the  art  of  France, 
while  deeper  feeling  and  ps3rchical  qualities  are  wanting,  will  find 
its  explanation  in  the  history  of  French  art  itself.  Instead  of 
having  its  sources  in  the  poetical  necessities  of  the  people,  it  was 
trained  by  the  courts  in  the  service  of  luxury.  It  is  characteristic, 
that,  even  in  the  period  of  the  Renaissance,  only  those  elements  of 
the  Renaissance  style  found  entrance  through  the  South  of  France, 
which,  in  the  shape  of  ornament,  were  nothing  but  the  wanton  out- 
growth of  the  noble  forms  of  that  brilliant  epoch. 

The  enthusiasm  for  the  grand  creations  of  grave  art  found  no 
reflection  in  France.  The  graceful  and  elegant  decorative  ele- 
ments alone  were  accepted ;  and  these,  being  without  a  firm 
basis,  soon  grew  shallow  and  degenerated.  Fontainebleau  ma}'  be 
said  to  mark  the  beginning  of  specific  peculiarities  in  French  art, 
which  afterwards,  during  the  period  of  the  Baroque  style,  devel- 


FRANCE.  87 

oped  themselves  still  further  in  the  most  pompous  and  theatrical 
manner.  Nevertheless,  however  emphatically  we  must  protest 
against  the  hollowness  and  unmeaningness  of  French  art  under 
Louis  XIV.  and  Louis  XV.,  with  its  useless  waste  of  means, 
and  however  objectionable  we  may  regard  it  with  respect  to  taste, 
we  cannot  deny,  that,  through  the  liberal  encouragement  of  art  on 
the  part  of  the  courts  and  the  aristocracy,  the  French  artists  of 
that  time  had  already  attained  a  technical  skill  which  is  truly 
admirable,  even  in  the  works  of  the  Baroque  style.  In  art-indus- 
try especially,  and  in  scuplture,  which  stands  nearest  to  it,  their 
achievements  were  most  brilliant ;  and  the  traditions  of  these  suc- 
cesses have  been  preserved  even  to  this  day.  Painting  pursued  a 
more  independent  course.  With  the  period  of  the  Revolution,  a 
great  change  began  in  all  departments  of  art.  The  first  empire 
constituted  the  period  of  classicism.  What  David  was  for  paint- 
ing, Canova  and  Bosio  were  for  sculpture.  But  painting  subse- 
quently veered  around  into  romanticism,  and,  during  the  second 
empire,  turned  completely  into  realism.  Sculpture,  however,  re- 
tained the  forms  of  the  antique,  but  also,  to  a  great  extent,  the 
hollow  pathos  of  the  Rococo. 

And  how  were  industry  and  ornamentation  affected?  Nature, 
pure  and  simple,  was  combined  with  the  elements  of  the  Rococo. 
She  was  copied  literally.  The  ornament  became  every  thing ; 
and,  as  a  necessary  consequence,  the  ground-form  of  the  object 
was  totally  neglected ;  the  feeling  for,  and  the  comprehension  of, 
the  form  in  relation  to  its  purpose,  was  lost,  and  the  materials 
were  applied  in  the  most  disgustingly  false  manner. 

Contrary  to  all  this,  the  aims  of  the  present  reformatory  move- 
ment may  briefly  be  stated  to  be  the  following :  the  artistic  con- 
struction of  the  ornament ;  its  organic  development  from  the  forms 
of  nature ;  due  regard  to  practical  use  in  the  ground-form  of  the 
object ;  and  the  correct  application  of  the  material  employed. 

How  far,  then,  has  this  purification  of  forms  in  industiy  pro- 
gressed in  France  since  the  last  Exhibition  ?  What  means  are 
employed  in  the  schools  for  the  purpose  of  encouraging  fur- 
ther development  in  this  direction  ?  And  what  ma}-  possibly  be 
the  result  of  such  a  revolution  in  instruction  on  French  art  proper? 
These  are  the  main  points,  which  the  reporter  kept  in  view  in 
c 


f 
88  ART  EDUCATION. 

examining  the  aids  for  teaching,  specimens  by  the  pupils,  &c., 
which  were  to  be  seen  at  the  Exhibition. 

Dark  days  intervened  for  France  between  the  years  1867  and 
1873,  and  the  fury  of  war  rudely  compelled  the  studios  and  the 
workshops  to  pause.  But  in  spite  of  these  drawbacks,  the  country 
appeared  in  the  arena  of  labor  at  Vienna  most  gorgeously  decked. 
In  art  (painting  and  sculpture)  not  much  that  was  new  was  to  be 
seen,  the  traditional  character  being  represented  on  the  whole  ;  but 
in  industry  an  important  advance  in  the  revolution  of  taste  was  to 
be  noticed.  The  style  of  the  time  of  Louis  XV.  is,  indeed,  still 
dominant;  flowers  and  plastic  ornamerits  are  still  to  be  found 
where  neither  of  them  belong ;  but,  nevertheless,  forms  of  well- 
defined  style  are  gaining  ground  step  by  step,  and  the  architec- 
tonic, which  used  to  be  tabooed,  has  found  its  way  into  designs  for 
textile  fabrics,  into  bronzes,  faiences,  &c.  That  the  elements  of 
the  reform  have  not  yet  been  adopted  to  a  greater  degree,  and  that 
the  imitation  of  old,  and  especially  of  Oriental  art,  is  more  gener- 
allv  preferred,  may  perhaps  be  owing  to  national  pride,  which  at 
present  is  more  irritated  than  ever.  In  these  imitations,  how- 
ever, in  consequence  of  the  national  character,  the  effective  is  fre- 
quently preferred  to  the  beautiful. 

We  must  now  endeavor  to  answer  the  following  questions : 
What  is  the  prevailing  tendency  in  the  schools  in  regard  to  style  ? 
And  what  position  does  art-instruction  in  general  occupy  in  France 
at  present  ? 

As  regards  the  first  question,  the  most  important  point,  which  we 
will  have  to  place  above  all  others,  is  this:  "  What  is  it  that  is 
drawn  in  the  schools?  "  for  the  practical  draughtsman  will  finally 
express  himself  in  the  forms  in  which  he  was  trained,  or  will  at 
least  find  pleasure  in  them.  The  importance  attaching  to  copies, 
models,  &c.,  has  long  been  recognized  in  France,  and  for  decades 
Parisian  firms  have  ruled  the  world  by  the  drawing-copies  published 
by  them. 

Julien,  with  his  numerous  works,  was  the  leading  author  until 
after  the  year  1850,  and  not  in  France  alone.  His  smoothly- 
executed  heads,  his  showy  ornaments,  — taking  to  the  eye,  but  of 
doubtful  value  for  rational  instruction,  —  were  to  be  found  wher- 
ever there  were  drawing-schools.  With  such  models  figure-drawing 


FRANCE.  89 

• 

must  of  necessity  go  astray  ;  an  observation  which  was  again  con- 
firmed at  Vienna  by  the  specimens  exhibited  by  those  institutions 
in  which  the  older  publications  of  this  author  are  still  in  use. 
Besides  Julien's  copies,  there  were  also  employed  simple  ornaments 
(of  which  those  by  Bilordeaux  were  perhaps  the  most  elegant) ,  and, 
above  all,  studies  of  flowers.  Standard  examples  of  the  latter  class 
were  produced  quite  early,  and  are  still  being  produced ;  for  in 
them  lies  the  most  important  element  of  industry. 

Now  came  the  World's  Fairs,  and  competition  demanded  forms 
of  greater  precision  in  industry.  But  these  could  be  introduced 
only  by  new  means  of  art-instruction. 

The  revolution  that  has  been  consummated  in  the  department 
of  art-instruction  in  France,  within  the  last  few  years,  is  a  most 
portentous  sign  of  the  gradual  revolution  of  taste  in  French  art- 
industry.  Drawing-copies  no  longer  spring  into  existence  out  of 
the  imagination  of  individuals  ;  a  stricter  method  is  pursued  in  the 
selection  of  motives,  and  a  return  to  the  classics  has  taken  place. 
The  firm  "  Julien"  itself  brought  out  "Etudes  d'apres  T  Antique  ;  " 
but  these  unfortunately  were  again  too  bold,  too  broad  in  treat- 
ment, to  be  useful  as  standards  in  the  elemental  stages  of  figure- 
drawing.  In  ornament  the  Renaissance  was  at  first  gone  back  to  ; 
but  finally  motives  and  forms  from  the  whole  range  of  art-history 
were  presented  in  the  copies,  beginning  with  the  Hindoos,  Egyp- 
tians, &c.,  and  reaching  down  to  the  latest  Rococo.  The  imita- 
tion of  the  most  varied  styles  in  modern  French  industry  may  have 
some  connection  with  this  fact.  A  number  of  prominent  pub- 
lishers, such  as  Delagrave,  Delarue,  Ducher,  Monrocq  Freres, 
Baudri,  Morel,  &c.,  have  produced  truly  magnificent  works  of  this 
kind.  The  return  to  classical  examples,  and  more  especially  to 
the  antique  in  figure-drawing,  has  continued  to  increase  since  the 
last  Exhibition ;  and  the  government  of  France,  even  up  to  the 
present  time,  has  given  its  support  to  these  efforts.  To  be  sure, 
the  fruits  of  this  movement,  generally  speaking,  are  not  visible  as 
.yet ;  but  it  must  be  acknowledged  that  energetic  efforts  are  making 
eveiy where  to  introduce  purer  elements  into  form. 

Of  the  latest  publications  to  be  seen  at  the  Exhibition,  men- 
tion must  be  made  before  all  of  F.  Ravaisson's  "  CLassiques  de 
PArt,  Modellcs  pour  1'Enseignement  du  Dessin."  Most  of  the 


90  9  ART  EDUCATION. 

photographs  of  which  this  series  consists  are  taken  from  the  clas- 
sical plastic  works  of  the  Louvre,  the  rest  being  from  drawings  by 
the  old  masters  ;  and  they  are  treated  in  a  manner  which  makes  it 
easy  to  copy  them  in  crayon  or  other  material.  An  excellent 
management  of  light,  together  with  well-chosen  backgrounds,  give 
the  greatest  lucidity  to  the  form,  especially  of  the  plastic  objects. 
The  work  embraces  two  hundred  plates,  but  is  unfortunately  too 
luxuriously  gotten  up  to  enable  it  to  come  into  general  use. 
Price,  eight  francs  each  plate. 

In  accordance  with  a  desire  of  the  government,  it  is  to  be 
introduced  into  all  the  Drawing-Schools,  Lycea,  &c.,  of  France, 
for  the  purpose  of  purifying  taste  by  means  of  the  antique, 
and  of  giving  unity  to  ideas  on  art.  For  the  present,  however, 
only  a  few  of  the  Parisian  schools  possess  it.  In  the  provincial 
cities,  where  the  older  elements  are  as  yet  more  deeply  rooted, 
these  modern  efforts  are  sometimes  forced  to  contend  against 
gross  prejudices. 

The  "  Cours  de  Dessin  par  Ch.  Bargue  (avec  le  Concours  de 
Gerome)  "  outdoes  all  earlier  productions,  although  it  is  more 
general  in  its  tendencies.  The  first  part  contains  sculpture  from 
antique  models  in  exceedingly  delicate,  picturesque  treatment; 
the  second  part  brings  us  faithful  copies  from  classical  works  of 
various  kinds,  drawings  by  the  old  masters,  &c.,  of  all  epochs, 
among  which  the  "good"  German  masters  have  not  been  forgot- 
ten. The  execution  is  slight,  but  exact,  and  in  only  one  cra}'on. 
These  superior  examples  (published  since  1868)  have  already 
found  their  way  into  many  of  the  Austrian  schools ;  and  their 
general  introduction  is  most  desirable. 

The  "  Exercises  au  Fusain  pour  preparer  a  1'fitude  de  1' Academic 
d'apres  la  Nature"  (Hachette,  1871)  can  be  put  to  excellent  use 
in  higher  drawing-schools,  as  a  preparation  for  academical  studies. 
The  work  consists  of  sketches  onty,  and  special  attention  is  ,de- 
voted  to  quick  comprehension  and  correct  proportioning  of  the 
figures.  Among  the  publications  of  Monrocq  Freres,  the  "  Grand 
Cours  d'Animaux,"  by  H.  Lalaise,  is  to  be  singled  out ;  the  exe- 
cution is  somewhat  bold,  but  the  forms  are  rendered  with  consid- 
erable knowledge.  The  "  Modeles  d'apres  la  Nature,"  b}T  J.  Ducol- 
let  et  Felon,  on  the  contrary,  go  back  again  entirety  to  Julien's 
manner. 


FRANCE.  91 

Of  ornaments  the  "  Cours  d'Ornement,"  by  Lievre  (Goupil, 
1868)  must  be  placed  at  the  head  of  the  list,  as  being  superior  in 
its  choice  of  motives.  The  objects  —  original  models  in  all 
styles  —  are  represented  in  a  manner  easily  comprehended,  on 
paper  of  a  light-gray  tint,  in  craj'on  underlaid  with  the  stump. 

With  examples  of  this  kind,  it  is  indeed  easy  to  teach  the 
styles  in  the  drawing-classes.  A  similar  work, 'but  one  which  em- 
braces the  history  of  art  still  more  fully,  is  that  of  Camille  Chazal 
(Hachette).  The  first  plates  represent  Egypt  in  figure,  orna- 
ment, and  architecture ;  the  Orient  follows  in  a  similar  manner, 
then  the  classics  of  antiquity,  and  so  on  down  to  the  Renaissance. 
In  the  last  part,  on  French  art,  the  object  of  the  plates,  to  serve 
as  drawing-copies,  has  unfortunate!}'  been  lost  sight  of  somewhat ; 
the  smaller  genre-pieces  might  have  been  left  away  quite  as  well. 
The  work  compiled  by  the  meritorious  Frere  M.  Victoris,  "  En- 
seignement  Populaire  du  Dessin  d'Ornement,"  intended  for  ele- 
mentary  instruction  in  ornament-drawing,  is  carried  out  in  a 
similar  spirit.  The  motives  are  given  in  outline  with  geometrical 
lines,  lightly  shaded,  and  in  historical  order.  This  work  has  been 
introduced  into  most  of  the  primary  schools  which  are  under  the 
care  of  the  "  Congregation  of  the  Brethren  of  Schools  ;  "  farther 
on,  we  shall  have  to  speak  of  its  successful  emploj'ment  in  in- 
struction. In  the  same  schools,  the  "  Cours  d'Ornempnt,"  by  the 
Frere  Athanase,  conspicuous  for  its  easy,  elegant  execution,  is 
likewise  frequently  in  use.  The  forms  begin  at  once  upon  the  first 
plates  with  palmettos,  spiral  lines,  &c.,  and  advance  to  motives 
of  moderate  difficulty,  which  are  culled  from  the  classical  monu- 
ments of  the  Renaissance,  of  the  Greeks,  Romans,  and  Etru scans, 
and  of  the  Gothic  style.  They  are  executed  in  one  crayon  on 
paper  of  a  light  tint. 

Series  of  copies  for  the  first  stage  of  instruction  have  been  pro- 
duced in  Paris  in  large  masses  of  late  years ;  and,  on  the  whole, 
it  may  be  remarked,  that  the  principal  aim  held  in  view,  even  at 
the  very  beginning  of  instruction,  is  an  artistic  and  free  manner 
of  expression.  The  question  here  is  not — and  this  is  the  essential 
difference  between  French  and  Germans  —  the  exposition  of  the 
form,  its  geometrical  construction.  The  straight  line  is  quickly 
done  away  with,  or  is  simply  omitted ;  and  all  efforts  are  at  once 


92  ART  EDUCATION. 

directed  upon  the  object  of  instruction,  i.e.,  on  freehand  ornament 
in  its  development.  Long  practice  of  outlines  as  such  is  very  sel- 
dom seen. 

As  it  is  the  aim  of  all  French  art  to  interest,  to  grasp  the  mo- 
ment in  its  focus,  and  to  please  the  eye  by  a  wealth  of  variety,  it 
is  not  strange  that  we  should  find  this  national  trait  distinctly  ex- 
pressed even  in  the  first  aids  for  teaching.  It  must  undoubtedly 
be  beneficial  in  many  respects,  if,  during  the  earlier  years  of  child- 
hood, the  imagination  is  fed  upon  forms  which  have  been 
taken  directly  from  life,  and  if  the  drawing-book  answers  first  of 
all  the  purposes  of  an  instructive  picture-book,  while  at  the  same 
time  it  offers  an  opportunity  for  the  ready  imitation  of  the  forms. 
To  awaken  and  to  retain  the  interest  for  the  beautiful  at  a  time 
when  the  activity  of  the  mind  still  unfolds  itself  more  or  less 
unconsciously,  is  certainly  a  piece  of  pedagogical  legerdemain ; 
but  success  may  surely  be  counted  upon  if  the  material  selected 
for  instruction  is  made  to  conform  closely  to  the  instinctive  ele- 
ments in  human  nature.  Drawing,  the  same  as  any  other  sub- 
ject, demands  a  certain  maturity  of  mind  for  each  of  its  stages. 
Learning  to  see,  however,  which  is  the  principal  discipline  in 
drawing  can  only  be  attained  by  means  of  highly  developed  and 
adequate  object-teaching. 

Of  later  publications  for  the  first  stage  of  instruction  in  form, 
we  must  confine  ourselves  to  those  issued  by  the  more  prominent 
among  the  active  Parisian  publishers.  "  L'ficolier  Parisien, 
simples  Modeles  de  Dessin  avec  Esquisse  "  (Monrocq),  offers, 
in  small  books,  a  collection  of  the  more  simple  forms  in  the 
various  branches  of  drawing,  and,  according  to  the  motto  upon 
the  titlepage,  aims  at  instructing  the  hand  in  drawing  lines, 
and  educating  the  eye  for  form.  The  figures  are  executed  in 
vigorous  outlines,  and  are  repeated  at  the  side  towards  the  right, 
in  fine  lines,  which  at  first  are  simply  to  be  gone  over ;  later  on, 
the  pupil  copies  more  independently.  The  low  price  (ten  centimes 
each)  at  which  these  books  (sixty  thus  far)  are  sold,  is  astonish- 
ing. 

"Le  Dessin  pour  Tous  (Methode  Cassagne)  "  is  similarly  ar- 
ranged, but  in  addition  the  books  are  furnished  with  a  short 
explanatory  text.  The  whole  work,  indeed,  far  exceeds  the  ex- 


FRANCE.  93 

ecutive  ability  of  the  children  for  wnom  it  is  designed  (this  may 
be  remarked  more  especially  of  the  "  Etudes  du  Genre"),  but 
its  purpose  is  to  train  the  eye,  rather  than  the  hand,  in  the  matter 
of  form,  and  principally  to  acquaint  this  organ  with  the  most 
important  and  the  most  beautiful  in  art  and  in  nature.  Besides 
this,  the  firm  of  Monrocq  Freres,  which  is  exceeding^  active  in 
the  field  of  instruction  in  form  and  in  drawing,  publishes  a  jour- 
nal, "Le  Petit  Artiste"  (1st  and  15th  of  each  month),  in  which 
motives  from  all  departments  of  drawing,  with  a  short  text,  are  pre- 
sented in  the  greatest  variety.  Whoever  turns  over  the  leaves  of 
the  volumes  thus  far  published  will  be  forced  to  acknowledge,  that 
the  choice,  as  well  as  the  execution  of  the  objects,  which  is  some- 
times quite  artistic,  are  well  fitted  to  create  an  interest,  and  to  be 
practically  useful  in  teaching  the  knowledge  of  form.  Luzanne's 
slate-copies  are  likewise  a  very  recommendable  means  to  interest 
children  in  the  imitation  of  forms.  The  drawings  are  executed  in 
red  lines  on  the  left  half  of  the  slate,  and  are  reflected,  by  means  of 
a  glass  plate  placed  vertically,  upon  the  other  blank  half,  where  the 
outlines  are  gone  over  by  the  hand  of  the  pupil.  The  "  Cahiers 
d'Enseignement  Pratique  du  Dessin,"  by  J.  Carot,  the  "  Cahiers 
Esquisses  de  Dessin  d'Ornement,"  by  A.  le  Bealle,  as  well  as  the 
works  of  J.  Bardin,  L.  Grunblot,  Blery,  &c.,  are  already  devoted 
to  higher  aims  in  drawing-instruction  proper ;  and  it  needs  only  to 
remark  in  general,  that  the  plastic  ornament  prevails  everywhere. 
The  natural  flower  gradually  steps  into  the  background.  Land- 
scape likewise  is  very  properly  excluded  from  elementary  instruc- 
tion ;  and,  indeed,  since  Calame's  incomparable  lithographs,  noth- 
ing prominent  in  this  genre  has  appeared.  Strange  to  say,  very- 
little  has  as  yet  been  done  for  elementary  figure-drawing.  It  is 
evident,  that  art-instruction  in  France  is  bent  especially  upon  the 
practical,  upon  industry,  in  which  department  truly  magnificent 
works  have  been  published,  and  in  which  the  Parisian  publishers, 
in  spite  of  the  efforts  of  the  English,  still  stand  unsurpassed. 
The  space  at  command  would  have  to  be  exceeded,  if  only  the 
most  prominent  were  to  be  mentioned.  These  works  have  been 
given  to  all  the  world ;  and  it  must  be  sufficient  here  to  have  drawn 
attention  to  them. 

For  instruction  in  linear  drawing,  numerous  works  were  also 


94  ART  EDUCATION. 

exhibited,  all  of  which,  however,  moved  in  the  same  track,  i.e., 
after  the  general  part,  aimed  immediately  at  practical  application. 
Here,  again,  the  most  prominent  work  was  the  excellent  "  Cours  de 
Dessin  Geometrique  et  Industrie!,"  by  the  Frere  Victoris,  which 
was  already  favorably  known  from  the  Exhibition  of  1867.  With 
it  there  were  also  exhibited  the  models  (of  plaster  and  of  tin)  be- 
longing to  it.  Mention  must  also  be  made  of  the  "  Dessin  Line- 
aire  Industrie!  applique  a  la  Mechanique  et  a  la  Construction,"  by 
M.  S.  Petit.  Of  geometrical  models  there  are  still  to  be  noted 
the  practically  arranged  collections  of  Rives,  Delagrave,  A. 
Julien,  and  others.  They  offered  nothing  new,  however.  Hach- 
ette  &  Co.  exhibited  wooden  models  for  descriptive  geometry 
and  stone  constructions,  and  small  models  of  machineiy.  The 
"  ficole  Professionelle  "  at  Evreux  had  sent  a  variety  of  models 
for  locksmiths,  joiners,  machinists,  &c. 

Having  given  a  general  idea  of  the  tendencies  to  be  observed  in 
the  copies,  &c.,  lately  published,  we  will  now  turn  to  the  schools, 
i.e.,  to  drawing-instruction  itself,  and,  in  reviewing  the  drawings 
by  the  pupils,  we  will  likewise  consider  the  methods,  arrange- 
ments, aims,  &c. 

It  is  well  known  that  educational  matters  in  France,  even  to- 
day, leave  much  to  be  desired,  and  that,  in  spite  of  the  efforts  of 
the  government,  the  communes,  and  of  humanitarian  societies, 
they  are  still  in  a  very  defective  state.  Compulsion  has  not  been 
carried  through ;  and  thus  it  happens,  that  even  in  the  metropolis, 
in  Paris,  it  is  a  rarity  if  children  of  the  poorer  classes  attend  the 
elementary  schools  for  a  longer  period  than  three  years.  Accord- 
ing to  the  figures  given  in  a  report  of  the  Chamber  of  Commerce 
of  Paris  in  1867,  twenty-five  thousand  children  still  of  the  school- 
age  were  at  that  time  drawn  away  from  school  by  the  Parisian 
manufactories  and  other  establishments.  But  this  number  has 
increased  considerably  since.1 

That  drawing  does  not  play  a  prominent  part  in  the  People's 
Schools,  will  therefore  be  readily  understood.  Still  the  subject  is 

i  According  to  a  report  of  the  "  Societe  pour  1'Instruction  Elementaire,"  of 
the  year  1870,  there  are  two  millions  of  children  in  France  who  receive  no 
instruction  whatever,  and  fourteen  millions  of  adults  who  can  neither  read 
nor  write. 


FRANCE.  95 

cultivated  in  many  institutions  (as  an  elective  stud}') ,  and  in  Paris 
especialty  a  teacher  of  drawing  is  employed  for  the  Municipal 
Schools  of  each  arrondissement. 

In  the  Elementary  Schools  under  the  charge  of  the  u  Christian 
Brethren,"  drawing  is  cultivated  incomparably  better  and  more 
systematically.  Although  the  method  here  is  likewise  left  to  the 
choice  of  the  individual  teacher,  a  certain  system,  more  or  less 
successfully  carried  through,  has  nevertheless  been  generally  in- 
troduced through  the  copies  published  b}'  the  congregation  itself. 
On  the  average,  the  children  begin  to  draw  at  the  age  of  from  nine 
to  ten  years,  freehand  and  linear  drawing  being  treated  as  totally 
separate  branches.  In  freehand  drawing,  geometrical  forms  are 
therefore  omitted,  and,  as  before  stated,  rhythmical  ornament  is 
immediately  aimed  at.  The  copies  most  in  use  are  those  already 
named,  by  Victoris  and  Athanase,  partially  also  those  of  J.  Carot. 
The  teacher  executes  the  drawing  in  hand  upon  the  blackboard  on 
a  large  scale,  and  explains  it;  each  pupil  (in  the  case  of  large 
classes  every  two  pupils)  has  before  him  a  lithographic  copy  of 
the  same  original,  showing  the  drawing  as  it  is  to  appear  when 
finished.  The  pupils  always  draw  with  charcoal  upon  paper  light- 
ly tinted,  and  correct  the  forms,  by  wiping  with  tinder,  or  cloth, 
until  they  appear  correctly  ;  this  is  succeeded  by  the  execution  in 
crayon  or  in  lead-pencil.  The  drawings  executed  in  this  manner, 
and  exhibited  at  the  World's  Fair,  frequently  showed  results  that 
were  quite  astonishing ;  and  those  of  the  "  ficole  de  St.  Sulpice  " 
(Paris),  and  "St.  Michel"  (Havre),  must  be  mentioned  more 
particularly.  As  shaded,  plastic  ornament  is  practiced  from  flat 
copies  in  these  schools,  the  transition  from  the  flat  to  the  round 
is  much  easier  there  than  from  the  outline-ornaments  universally 
introduced  with  us. 

In  the  numerous  Boarding-Schools  connected  with  the  element- 
ary educational  institutions  in  France,  which,  especially  in  the 
provincial  towns,  are  frequently  in  charge  of  the  "  Brethren,"  and 
in  which  there  are  often  found  pupils  fourteen  to  sixteen  3*ears  of 
age,  drawing  from  the  round  (casts)  is  practiced  with  the  best 
success.  The  models  of  ornaments  are  taken  almost  exclusively 
from  the  Renaissance,  those  for  the  figure  from  the  antique. 

The  portfolios  exhibited  in  large  masses  by  the  various  educa- 


96  ART  EDUCATION. 

tional  institutions  of  the  provinces  unfortunately  gave  evidence  in 
but  few  cases  of  a  systematic  course  of  instruction.  Most  of  the 
specimens  sent  were  selected  show-pieces  done  by  the  more  tal- 
ented scholars,  some  of  which,  indeed,  claimed  our  admiration,  but 
were  little  in  accordance  with  the  purposes  of  the  Exhibition. 
This  much  only  became  evident  from  all  that  was  to  be  seen : 
that  each  teacher  cultivates  his  own  genre,  according  to  his  espe- 
cial liking,  and  that  no  uniform  principle  has  as  yet  been  carried 
through  in  general.  As  a  rule,  instruction  in  drawing  in  the  in- 
stitutions named  culminates  simply  in  brilliant  execution,  and, 
having  no  positive  aims,  frequently  degenerates  into  shallow  dilet- 
tantism. Thus  in  the  "  ftcole  Communale  "  of  Marseilles  almost 
nothing  is  drawn  but  pictures  of  saints  from  bad  lithographs,  and 
the  objectionable  large  heads  in  cra}*on  by  Julien ;  at  the  St. 
Joseph  School  at  Beauregard,  Thionvilie,  the  ornament  is  prac- 
ticed, but  in  conjunction  with  figures  and  landscapes,  which  make 
it  apparent  that  drawing  is  there  treated  only  as  an  amusement ; 
in  Besar^on,  again,  landscape  in  charcoal  is  attempted,  and  so  on. 
The  Boarding-School  at  Toulouse,  on  the  contrary,  exhibited  a 
tolerably  systematic  course  of  instruction,  from  simple  geometrical 
forms  up  to  well-developed  ornament.  Good  drawings  from  casts 
were  also  to  be  found  in  the  portfolios  of  the  institutions  at  Mou- 
lins,  Rouen,  and  Clermont,  where  some  of  the  drawing-copies 
lately  published  are  successfully  used.  In  the  more  important 
cities,  evening-classes  are  connected  with  these  institutions,  which 
are  frequented  by  persons  engaged  in  industry,  and  in  which  draw- 
ing is  therefore  taught  with  more  especial  reference  to  particular 
trades.  Excellent  work  is  done  in  these  schools  in  constructive 
drawing,  and,  indeed,  linear  drawing  is  generally  well  cultivated 
even  in  the  lower  educational  institutions.  In  freehand  drawing, 
however,  very  praiseworthy  specimens  were  likewise  exhibited.  We 
will  here  mention  only  those  by  the  schools  of  St.  August! n  and  St. 
fitienne  du  Mont  (Paris) .  Superior  drawings  from  casts  had  been 
sent  by  the  schools  of  Rheims  and  Besan9on.  With  these  we  ap- 
proach the  field  of  the  special  schools,  in  which,  as  is  well  known, 
drawing  receives  better  care  than  in  any  other  schools  in  France  ; 
but,  before  passing  on  to  them,  we  mast  glance  at  the  higher  Peo- 
ple's Schools,  the  Lycea  (the  "  ecoles  secondaries"  in  general), 


FRANCE.  97 

in  which  drawing  ought  to  be  practiced  rather  as  an  element  of 
general  than  of  special  education. 

This  demand,  however,  has  not  been  satisfied  by  the  study  of 
drawing,  as  taught  in  the  schools  of  France  up  to  the  present  •;  for 
even  in  the  Primary  Schools  special  aims  are  generally  kept  in  view, 
and  drawing  is  simply  cultivated  for  the  practical  purposes  of  in- 
dustry. As  little  attention  as  in  other  states  has,  so  far,  been  paid 
in  France  to  general  art-education,  i.e.,  to  educating  the  people  to  a 
comprehension  of  art ;  and  the  French  Lycea,  as  Latin  Schools,  are 
quite  as  much  strangers  to  it  as  are  those  of  Germany  and  of 
Austria.  The  official  instructions  for  drawing  at  the  Lycea  (De- 
partment of  the  Seine)  do  not  even  intimate  that  the  subject  is 
looked  upon  in  this  light ;  for,  besides  fixing  the  hours  (one  to  two 
per  week) ,  they  confine  themselves  to  prescribing  the  regulations 
to  be  adhered  to  in  teaching.  But  these  regulations  receive  very 
little  attention,  being  of  a  nature  which  makes  it  next  to  impossible 
to  carry  them  out.  During  the  first  two  3'ears,  for  instance,  with 
one  hour  weekty,  the  study  of  the  ornament  is  to  be  completed  ;  in 
the  two  following  (two  hours  weekly)  the  human!  figure  and  per- 
spective are  to  be  taught ;  and  so  on,  leaving  to  the  last  classes 
(two  hours  weekly)  "  figures  in  light  and  shade  from  casts." 

The  specimens  by  pupils  in  this  category  only  served  to  show 
that  the  teachers  treat  the  subject  according  to  their  own  indi- 
vidual fancy,  and  attach  but  little  importance  to  it.  Some  of  the 
institutions  had  again  committed  the  mistake  of  sending  magnifi- 
cent show-pieces,  with  the  names  of  the  pupils  attached  (Nimes 
for  example),  which  can  only  be  passed  by  in  silence.  The  same 
error  was  made  by  man}'  of  the  Communal  Schools  (and  especially 
of  the  Department  of  the  Seine)  in  respect  to  linear  drawing; 
unless,  indeed,  these  children  are  prodigies,  who,  at  the  age  of 
twelve  years,  are  capable  of  producing  a  locomotive  in  all  sec- 
tions and  all  projections,  or  complicated  architectures  in  perspec- 
tive, with  an  exactness,  and  a  manual  skill,  such  as  wa*s  shown  in 
the  work  which  some  of  the  schools  did  not  shrink  from  oiler  ing 
to  the  admiration  of  specialists. 

The  higher  courses  of  the  u  ficoles  communales  (lai'ques)  "  of 
Paris    exhibited  very   creditable    specimens ;    ornament,    lightly 
shaded  in  crayon,  is  mostly  practiced  after  the  manner  already 
7 

* 


98  ART  EDUCATION. 

specified.  Drawing  in  the  schools  organized  after  the  pattern  of 
the  "  ficole  Turgot"  (Colbert,  Lavoisier,  Auteuil)  rather  bears 
the  character  of  the  professional,  which,  in  truth,  is  the  first  aim  of 
these* schools.  Constructive  drawing  predominates.  Of  the  ' '  £coles 
commerciales  "  (founded  by  the  Chamber  of  Commerce)  the  school 
at  No.  23  Avenue  Trudaine  exhibited  drawings  by  its  pupils, 
mostly  decorative  pieces,  and  designs  for  textile  fabrics,  which, 
however,  offered  nothing  new  as  far  as  style  is  concerned. 

In  the  girls'  schools  for  general  education,  drawing  is,  indeed, 
practiced  everywhere,  but  the  results  are  below  those  of  the  boys' 
schools.  Flowers  and  landscapes  are  taken  up  before  outlines 
have  been  sufficiently  practiced,  which  self-evidently  must  lead  to 
dilettantism.  In  the  "  ficoles  professionelles  "  for  females,  draw- 
ing is  more  successful,  and  more  so  in  those  under  the  patronage 
of  the  Archbishop  Mons.  Guilbert  than  in  those  called  into  life  by 
Duruy.  Of  the  institutions  first  named,  twenty-one  have  been 
organized  down  to  this  time  in  the  various  arrondissements  of 
Paris,  according  to  the  necessities  of  the  different  localities ;  and 
drawing  is  cultivated  especially  with  a  view  to  female  industrial 
pursuits.  The  "  ficole  professionelle  "  of  the  Faubourg  Pois- 
soniere  deserves  to  be  especially  mentioned  for  its  pretty  needle- 
work and  tasteful  drawings. 

It  may  be  gathered  from  what  has  been  said  so  far,  that  much 
is  still  left  to  be  desired  in  instruction  in  drawing  in  the  French 
schools  for  general  education,  and  that,  above  all,  a  common  centre 
is  still  wanting,  proceeding  from  which  well-defined  principles 
might  be  enforced.  No  one,  however,  will  doubt  that  it  is  very 
difficult  to  introduce  reforms  in  a  state  in  which  educational  mat- 
ters are  still  in  so  many  different  hands,  and  are,  indeed,  in  great 
part  left  to  private  enterprise.  The  efforts  made  in  this  direction 
by  the  government  since.  1870  deserve  full  recognition ;  and  the 
future  of  France  may  be  congratulated,  if  all  that  is  now  pre- 
scribed by  law  can  be  carried  out.  The  French  have  generally  intro- 
duced their  innovations  according  to  the  measure  of  their  wants ; 
and  the  }*ear  1870,  therefore,  brought  to  their  educational  institu- 
tions, what  the  World's  Fairs  brought  to  their  industry,  i.e.,  a  re- 
form. They  demonstrated  plainly  at  the  exhibition  in  the  Prater, 
that  they  are  capable  of  holding  their  own  against  all  other  states 


FRANCE.  99 

in  the  new  direction  which  taste  has  taken.  For  this  they  possess 
inherited  advantages.  But  it  is  still  a  question  of  the  future  as  to 
how  far  the  reforms  in  matters  of  education  can  be  accomplished. 

The  luxury  of  the  upper  classes  in  France  during  and  after  the 
epoch  of  the  Baroque  style  kept  French  industry  in  a  flourishing 
condition,  and  aided  its  diffusion  all  over  the  world.  Lucrative 
occupation  called  forth  numerous  industrial  schools  in  which  the 
French  artisan  gained  that  technical  routine  which  marks  French 
industry  even  to-day.  Everything  done  for  art-industrial  drawing 
by  the  government,  by  the  communes,  or  by  individual  manufac- 
turers, was  done,  as  already  remarked,  not  so  much  for  the  pur- 
pose of  purifying  taste,  as  with  a  view  to  increasing  wealth,  and 
keeping  business  in  a  flourishing  condition.  All  the  world,  indeed, 
believe  1  to  be  beautiful,  and  admired,  whatever  came  from  France. 
Thus,  although  it  is  left  to  other  nations  to  lead  form  back  to 
law  from  caprice,  France  still  has  the  advantage  of  a  legion  of 
technically  well-trained  workmen,  made  over  to  her  by  her  past, 
who  can  be  used  to  good  purpose  in  the  reform  of  her  art-industry, 
while  in  other  countries  such  workmen  will  first  have  to  be  educated. 

The  special  Industrial  Schools  arose  in  obedience  to  local  wants, 
and,  in  the  provinces,  are  mostly  of  a  purely  local  character;  in 
Paris  the  larger  schools  are  so  organized  as.  to  serve  more  general 
interests.  Besides  the  higher  Art-Schools,  the  city  at  present  has 
forty  Public  Drawing-Schools,  which  are  sustained  partly  by  the 
commune,  parti}'  by  the  government,  or  by  private  individuals. 
All  the  Municipal  Schools,  furthermore,  have  evening  classes,  in 
which  apprentices  and  adults  are. taught  free  of  charge.  The 
greater  number  of  these  evening-classes  were  opened  as  late  as 
1864  ;  and  the  attendance  in  the  yQ&r  1 869  had  risen  from  twelve 
hundred  to  four  thousand ;  after  the  war  it  decreased  again  to 
two  thousand.  The  attention  which  the  commune  of  Paris  has 
lately  bestowed  upon  the  Industrial  Improvement  Schools  is  best 
shown  by  the  increase  in  the  amount  expended  upon  them,  which, 
from  thirty  thousand  francs  shortly  after  the  year  1850,  has  now 
reached  the  sum  of  three  hundred  and  fifty  thousand  francs.1 

The  best  of   the  drawing-schools   at  present  to   be   found   in 

1  What  Paris  does  for  Art.  —  The  following  interesting  remarks  are  taken 
from  an  article  by  R.  v.  Eitelberger  on  "The  Cultivation  of  Art  by  the  State," 


100  ART  EDUCATION. 

.Paris  were  mostly  established  some  time  ago  by  capable  artists, 
and  at  a  later  date  were  subventioned  by  the  commune.  Of  these, 
the  schools  of  E.  Levasseur  and  Just.  Lequien  are  still  the  most 
prominent.  At  the  Exhibition,  the  works  of  their  pupils  were 
incorporated  into  the  "  Exposition  de  la  Ville  de  Paris,"  where  the 

contained  in  C.  v.  Liitzow's  "Art  and  Art-Industry  at  tlie  Vienna  World's 
Fair,  1873,"  Leipsic,  1875,  p.  208,  &c. 

"  We  have  before  us  the  '  Liste  des  Objets  exposes  par  la  Ville  de  Paris ' 
(Exposition  universelle  de  Vienne,  1873.  Paris,  1873.  143  pp.).  What  were  the 
objects  principally  exhibited  by  the  city  of  Paris?  They  were  objects  of  art. 

"  Under  the  heading  '  Service  des  Travaux  d' Architecture,'  we  find  the  Palace 
of  Justice  by  J.  L.  Due,  the  Chamber  of  Commerce  by  Bailly,  the  Church  of 
Sfr  Ambrosius  by  Ballu,  the  Church  of  St.  Augustine  by  Baltard,  the  Church 
of  St.  Bernard  by  Magne,  the  Church  of  St.  Francis  Xavier  by  Lusson,  &c., 
several  communal. and  school  buildings,  the  fountain  of  the  '  Theatre  francais,' 
that  of  St.  Micliel  and  Luxembourg  by  Davioud,  and  so  on.  The  most  inter- 
esting objects  are  the  projects  for  the  restoration  of  the  'Hotel  de  Ville,' 
especially  those  by  Ballu  and  Deperthes,  which  received  the  first  price.  It 
will  be  seen  that  the  city  of  Paris  employs  independent  architects  in  the 
erection  of  its  buildings. 

"  This  section  is  followed  by  the  '  Service  des  Beaux  Arts,'  consisting  of 
Peinture  (paintings,  designs,  water-colors,  photographs,  painted  windows), 
Sculpture,  Gravure  (medals,  copperplate  engravings),  and  Tapisseries.  The 
catalogue  of  the  'Service  des  Beaux  Arts'  takes  up  fifty-four  pages,  and  is 
well  worthy  of  detailed  inspection. 

"Among  the  historical  painters  who  have  been  employed  by  the  city  of 
Paris,  there  are  to  be  found  artists  of  all  tendencies:  Barrias,  Delacroix,  both 
the  Flandrms,  Blaize,  Hesse,  Jobbe  Duval,  Lehmaun,  Lenepveu,  Robert- 
Fleury,  Signol,  Yvon,  and  others. 

•"  Most  of  the  oil,  fresco,  and  glass  paintings  were  executed  for  the  churches 
of  the  city  of  Paris,  the  lesser  number  only  having  been  executed  for  other 
public  buildings;  the  same  is  true  of  the  sculptures.  In  this  department 
artists  of  various  tendencies  are  also  met  with :  Carrier-Belleuse,  Duret,  Fre- 
rniet,  Guillaume,  Maillet,  &o.  The  old  custom  of  coining  medals  in  memory 
of  important  events  has  been  kept  up  by  the  city  of  Paris. 

"Among  the  copperplate  prints  there  are  specimens,  executed  in  line- 
manner,  from  paintings  which  belong  to  the  city  of  Paris.  In  short,  this  ex- 
hibition of  the  city  of  Paris  was  a  hint  to  all  those  who  desire  to  know  why 
art  flourishes  so  vigorously  in  France.  It  is  not  only  because  the  art-schools 
of  France  are  better  organized,  and  are  managed  in  accordance  with  higher 
principles,  than  elsewhere,  but  it  is  also  because  the  arts  are  provided  for  in 
the  budget  of  the  commune." 

Fortunately  for  America,  we  are  not  encumbered  with  a  state  church,  so 
that  the  religious  branch  of  art  is  out  of  the  question  with  us.  But  would  not 
the  bare  white  walls  of  the  halls  of  our  public  schools,  of  the  council  chambers 
of  our  city  councils,  or  of  our  legislative  halls,  offer  a  splendid  field  for  the  ex- 
ercise of  the  powers  of  a  coming  race  of  Aruerican  historical  painters? — Ti'ansl. 


FRANCE.  101 

admirable  model  of  the  Lequien  School  was  likewise  to  be  seen. 
It  showed  the  grand  drawing  and  modelling  hall,  which  is  used  in 
common,  with  all  its  arrangements,  down  to  the  smallest  detail ; 
adjoining  this  on  both  sides,  the  halls  for  scientific  lectures ;  the 
hall  for  the  living  model  (human  figure)  ;  the  collection  of  models ; 
the  office,  &c.  This  school  received  a  premium  at  the  last  Paris 
Exhibition,  for  its  exceedingly  practical  arrangement;  and  in 
Vienna  it  was  likewise  highly  applauded  by  specialists. 

In  Lequien's  school,  as  well  as  in  most  of  the  municipal  schools, 
of  Paris,  all  branches  of  freehand  and  linear  drawing  are  taught,, 
and  its  exhibition  made  an  imposing  impression  by  the  artistia* 
perfection,  as  well  as  by  the  variety  of  its  work.  In  the  choice  of 
the  motives  of  ornamentation  in  these  higher  schools,  the  tra- 
ditional, indeed,  has  not  yet  been  fully  done  away  with.1  The 
Rococo  still  disports  itself  in  tolerably  extravagant  variations,, 
and  has  been  preserved,  especially  in  Levasseur's  school ;  but,, 
alongside  of  it,  the  Renaissance  has  already  appeared  upon  the* 
field  with  tolerable  decision,  and,  with  the  examples  of  classical 
architecture,  the  ornamental  motives  of  the  latter  are  likewise 
coming  into  use.  Figure-drawing  adheres  much  more  closely  to* 
the  antique.  The  French,  in  fact,  have  never  degenerated  as- 
much  in  the  figure  as  in  ornament,  and  their  preference  for  antique- 
forms,  especially  in  sculpture,  is  characteristic.  The  execution  in 
drawing,  although  picturesque  throughout,  never  neglects  modu- 
lation, and  the  effort  at  complete  deception  is  always  apparent. 
The  feeling  for  light  and  shade  is  educated  to  a  much  higher 
degree  in  the  French  schools  than  in  the  German,  in  which  latter 
the  main  stress  is  laid  upon  the  elaboration  of  the  form,  and  the 
truly  picturesque  effect  is  slighted.  The  German  drawings  from 
casts  have  a  plastic  look  ;  but  the  shadows  are  mostly  untrue  in  tint,, 
and  black  to  exaggeration.  Even  in  the  choice  of  the  tint  of 
their  paper,  the  French  show  a  finer  feeling  ;  and  it  never  happens 
that  drawings  are  made  upon  paper i  the  local  tint  of  which  does 
not  correspond  to  the  tint  of  the  object. 

1  The  designers  -working  for  art-industrial  purposes  are  in  the  same  state  of 
vacillation.  Their  works  were  exhibited  in  the  transept  of  the  French  division. 
V.  Duinont,  Prignot,  J.  Dnhuisson,  are  all  of  them  still  flirting  with  the  style 
of  the  time  of  Louis  XV.  Edan  already  employs  purer  and  more  compact 
forms.  J.  Gonelle  and  Charles  Fransois  remain  unsurpassed  in  their  designs 
for  shawls. 


102  ART  EDUCATION. 

The  academical  studies  evince  precise,  individual  conception, 
coupled  with  a  good  understanding  of  the  anatomy.  The  practice 
of  sketching  from  the  living  model,  carried  on  in  the  school  of 
Lequien  (fils) ,  is  very  praise worthy.  The  position  of  the  model 
is  changed  at  the  end  of  two  hours,  and  the  scholars  are  held  to 
study  and  represent  nature  as  fully  as  possible  during  the  time 
allowed  ;  certainly  a  much  more  practical  wa}7  of  studying  it  than 
by  means  of  the  minute  finish  given  to  the  objects  according  to 
the  method  still  so  often  the  fashion  in  German  art-schools. 

It  must  not  remain  unnoticed  here,  that  the  new  drawing-copies, 
spoken  of  above,  are  in  general  use  in  the  municipal  drawing- 
schools,  with  the  best  of  success,  and  that  Julien  has  been  driven 
from  the  field. 

.  In  architectural  drawing  there  were  exhibited,  of  classical  sub- 
jects, Greek  columns  and  temples,  but  surprisingly  little  of  Italian 
Renaissance.  Most  of  the  drawings  of  facades  are  taken  from  the 
epoch  of  French  pomp,  or  adhere  to  the  insipid  productions  of 
modern  times.  Constructive  drawing  proper,  on  the  contrary, 
flourishes  in  all  its  branches,  and  especially  in  the  department  of 
machinery.  <><V! 

Specimens  of  modelling  were  exhibited  only  by  the  schools  of 
Lequien  and  Levasseur,  —  reliefs,  with  figures  from  nature  and  from 
the  antique,  showing  throughout  a  picturesque  treatment ;  also 
Renaissance  ornaments,  busts,  &c.  Many  of  the  original  compo- 
sitions still  showed  the  Baroque  style.  Levasseur' s  school  also 
submitted  plants  modelled  from  nature,  in  plaster  and  in  wax. 

Good  drawings  were  also  to  be  seen  from  the  "  £cole  de  Dessin 
du  Rue  St.  Bernard,  20,"  the  "  ficole  du  Rue  d'Algire,"  and  the 
"  ficolc  d' Avenue  <T  Italic."  Among  the  female  municipal  draw- 
ing-schools, the  one  under  the  direction  of  Madame  Levasseur 
made  a  brilliant  exhibition,  especially  of  flower-studies,  and  also 
of  very  good  figures  and  ornaments.  The  schools  of  the  fifth  and 
sixteenth  arrondisements  ranked  next. 

The  "  ficole  de  Dessin"  of  the  "Manufacture  Nationael  des 
Gobelins"  exhibited  very  interesting  drawings  and  studies  for 
gobelins.  This  school  is  managed  most  excellently  by  Professors 
Lucas  and  Maillard ;  and  the  figure,  together  with  the  study  of 
flowers,  is  especially  cultivated  in  it. 


FRANCE.  103 

Of  the  "£cole  Speciale  d' Architecture"  (established  1863)  there 
were  to  be  seen  original  works,  and  photographs  from  such.  The 
school  is  well  known  by  its  admirable  productions.  A  large  num- 
ber of  architectural  works  were  published  by  it,  of  which  the 
"  Fragments  d' Architecture  "  (Paris,  Morel)  must  be  mentioned 
as  the  most  prominent. 

Excellent  specimens  had  furthermore  been  sent  by  the  provincial 
cities  from  the  renowned  "  ficoles  professionelles  "  of  Rouen,  St. 
Quentin,  Havre,  Lyons  (la  martinere),  and  the  "  ficole  Indus- 
trielle  de  la  Ville  de  Lille."  There  were  also  numerous  portfolios, 
with  good  drawings  from  Normandy  and  the  Bretagne,  where  the 
greater  number  of  the  "  ficoles  manufacturers  "  are  to  be  found. 
In  the  South,  Toulouse  and  Bordeaux  still  continue  to  be  the  cen- 
tral points  of  art-instruction,  and  their  schools  are  the  patterns 
for  those  of  the  smaller  cities.  The  schools  of  Bordeaux  are  more 
inclined  towards  the  industrial ;  while  in  Toulouse,  under  the  di- 
rection of  M.  Gaillard,  the  academical  and  purely  artistic  prevails. 

Opportunity  is  everywhere  given  to  the  workingmati  in  France, 
and  perhaps  more  especially  so  in  Paris,  to  acquire  an  artistic 
education  ;  and  the  government  has  at  no  time  neglected  to  see  to 
it,  that  the  advantages  offered  should  be  made  use  of  to  their 
full  extent.  Hausmann,  under  Napoleon,  had,  indeed,  done  a 
good  deal  in  this  direction ;  but  a  good  deal  remained  still  to 
be  done,  when  the  calamitous  catastrophe  of  war  produced  a 
marked  change  in  the  course  of  all  things  in  France.  The  pres- 
ent ministry,  however,  took  up  the  question  more  energetically 
than  before,  and  its  efforts  are  especially  directed  towards 
advancing  the  education  of  the  working-classes.  People  are 
well  convinced  that  it  is  chiefly  industry  which  must  bring  the 
lost  milliards  back  to  the  country ;  while  at  the  same  time,  iu 
view  of  the  advances  made  by  other  nations,  to  stand  still  would  be 
equal  to  retrogression.  But  however  the  special  schools  of  Paris 
may  flourish,  and  however  large  a  number  of  artistically-trained 
working-men  they  may  supply  to  the  industries,  it  is  nevertheless 
true,  that  with  the  mass  of  the  laboring  classes,  and  especially  with 
the  apprentices,  —  the  young  aftergrowth  as  it  were, — general 
as  well  as  special  education  is  still  exceedingly  deficient.  In  view 
of  these  circumstances,  M.  Greard,  at  present  Inspector-General 


104  ART  EDUCATION. 

of  Public  Instruction,  last  year  addressed  a  detailed  report  on  the 
"  ficoles  d'Apprentis  "  to  the  Prefect  of  the  Seine,  in  which  he 
made  certain  propositions  calculated  to  remedy  the  existing 
defects.  This  very  interesting  document  shows  that  its  author 
has  studied  the  question  most  thoroughly  in  its  relation  to  France, 
and  that,  by  a  fearless  exposure  of  existing  evils,  he  hopes  to  open 
the  way  to  better  results.  Not  without  justice  does  the  author 
remark,  in  describing  the  slave-like  uses  made  of  the  apprentices  on 
the  part  of  the  masters,  u  The  tree  is  cut  down  to  gather  the  fruit," 
and  "The  fruit  is  destined  in  the  flower."  The  sad  truth  of 
these  words  has  indeed  been  experienced  elsewhere  than  in  France, 
especially  in  Vienna ;  and  efforts  are  now  making  eveiywhere  to 
check  this  evil.  Severe  measures,  however,  cannot  be  carried 
through  by  the  government,  as  these  would  conflict  with  the  lib- 
erty of  trade.  The  enactments  that  are  made  can  therefore  aim 
only  at  the  welfare  of  the  future,  without  bringing  immediate  gain 
to  the  present. 

After  givitig  a  detailed  description  of  the  existing  schools  for 
persons  engaged  in  industrial  pursuits,  such  as  the  "  Pensionats  " 
and  "  Externats  d'apprentis,"  the  "  ficoles  professionelles," 
"  ficoles  industrielles,"  &c.,  as  regards  their  organization  as  well 
as  their  results,  the  author  of  the  document  in  question  passes 
on  to  a  full  review-  of  the  question  of  prizes  and  competitions, 
their  advantages  or  disadvantages  to  instruction. 

In  the  year  1847,  the  municipal  administration  established  pre- 
miun\s  for  the  pupils,  with  the  intention  of  increasing  the  interest 
in  the  schools.  It  soon  became  evident,  however,  that  it  was 
difficult,  m  view  of  the  unequal  preparation  of  the  pupils,  to 
reward  talent  as  well  as  industry ;  and  therefore,  instead  of  the 
prizes,  scholarships  were  created  (1854).  But,  unfortunately,  the 
speculation  of  the  masters  again  induced  them  to  enact  a  most 
injudicious  part ;  and  thus  the  advantages  to  the  community 
remained  problematic.  Numerous  evening  classes  were  then 
opened  (1864),  so  as  to  provide  increased  facilities  for  the 
advancement  of  the  education  of  artisans ;  and  by  these  evening 
classes  the  number  of  public  drawing-schools  was  carried  up  to 
thirty-three.1  Competitions  with  prizes  were  established,  which 
1  In  1851  tliere  were  only  six. 


FRANCE.  105 

occurred  every  two  years  on  the  occasion  of  the  exhibitions  of  the 
"Union  de  Beaux  Arts;"  besides  which  the  commune  put  a 
number  of  medals,  proportioned  to  the  number  of  scholars,  at  the 
disposal  of  the  directors  of  the  drawing-schools,  which  were 
distributed  by  the  teachers  among  the  most  industrious  pupils. 
For  the  purpose  of  animating  the  adults  (assistants,  journeymen, 
&c.),and'of  keeping  up  their  interest  in  their  own  education, 
yearly  competitions,  with  prizes,  were  likewise  established  for 
them.1 

.  The  special  schools  existing  in  France  are  also  reviewed  very 
thoroughly  by  M.  Greard.  He  endeavors,  by  examples,  to  give 
an  insight  into  the  Condition  of  general  and  special  instruction  in 
the  various  institutions  ;  and,  taking  as  a  basis  the  systems  upon 
which  the  schools  now  existing  at  Creuzot,  Nantes,  Havre,  and 
Paris  are  organized,  he  sketches  the  programme  for  a  model 
school,  which  appears  to  be  in  harmony  with  the  demands  of  the 
times  and  the  necessities  of  Paris.  In  conclusion,  the  author 
recommends  that  the  government  establish  such  a  school  in  Paris 
immediately,  this  school  to  serve  as  a  model  for  all  those  to  be 
organized  hi  future  ;  that  the  people  be  requested  by  the  govern- 
ment to  cause  the  apprentices  to  frequent  the  schools  provided  for 
them ;  that  the  government  subvention  the  industrial  schools  sup- 
ported b}*  associations,  and  that  it  employ  all  possible  means  for 
the  development  of  whatever  else  of  drawing-schools  there  may  be 
in  existence.  The  leading  authorities  have  carried  out  these 
wishes  to  the  fullest  extent,  and,  by  a  series  of  enactments,  have 
given  evidence  that,  even  in  the  midst  of  the  worst  political 
struggles,  the}'  have  not  lost  sight  of  art-industrial  education,  but 
that,  on  the  contrary,  they  seek  to  restore  the  prosperity  of  the 
country  b}'  its  means. 

Asa  "  Regicment  General  sur  1'Enseignement  du  Dessin  dans 

1  The  regulations  still  in  force  are  as  follows :  Of  each  twenty-five  schol- 
ars, three,  who  have  been  selected  by  their  professor  according  to  their 
progress,  are  permitted  to  take  part  in  the  competition:  The  pupils  of  the 
different  schools  meet  at  a  place  designated  t>y  the  administration,  and  are 
required  to  execute  two  drawings  under  surveillance:  first,  a  copy  of  an 
ornament  from  the  Mat;  and  secondly,  acopy  of  an  ornament  from  acast.  Three 
pi-ixes  and  six  honorable  mentions  are  given  yearly.  Each  medal  is  accompa- 
nied by  a  diploma  signed  by  the  prefect. 


106  ART  EDUCATION. 

les  ficoles  Primaires  et  dans  les  Classes  d'Apprentis  ou  d' Adultes  de 
la  Ville  de  Paris,"  the  enactments  of  the  year  1865  (by  Duruy  and 
C.  E.  Hausmann)  are  still  in  force. 

The  examination  which  the  drawing-teachers  of  the  "  ficoles 
Municipales "  must  undergo  before  the  commission  especially 
appointed  for  the  purpose  embraces  the  following  subjects  :  For  free- 
hand drawing  :  1 ,  The  execution  of  a  drawing  from  a  plaster  orna- 
ment ;  2,  A  drawing  from  an  antique  statue ;  3,  A  thoroughly 
finished  drawing  of  the  human  figure  from  nature  ;  4,  An  original 
composition  of  an  ornament  with  figures  (the  candidate  ma}T  draw 
or  model,  according  to  his  preference)  ;  5,  Correction  of  an  orna- 
ment and  of  a  figure  drawn  by  a  pupil ;  the  correction  to  be  made 
before  the  commission  by  the  candidate,  who  is  held  at  the  same 
time  to  accompany  the  correction  b}7  explanations  given  in  a  loud 
voice  (en  expliquant  a  haute  voix) . 

For  linear  drawing  the  candidate  must  execute:  1,  An  archi- 
tectural theme  according  to  a  given  programme,  and,  2,  A  prob- 
lem of  descriptive  geometry ;  furthermore,  3,  He  must  pass 
through  a  verbal  examination  on  the  elements  of  mathematics, 
geometry,  descriptive  geometiy,  perspective,  architecture,  and 
mechanics. 

As  superintendents  of  drawing,  two  inspectors  were  nominated 
(for  the  department  of  the  Seine) ,  according  to  the  organization 
of  the  year  1865  (Article  II.),  whose  duty  it  is  to  report  to  a  com- 
mission on  the  activity  of  the  teachers,  and  to  see  to  the  conser- 
vation of  the  schools.  The  commission  just  mentioned  consists 
of  fifteen  members,  five  of  whom  are  renewed  every  3*ear.  It 
examines  the  candidates,  proposes  the  models  (originals)  for 
drawing-instruction,  and  decides  on  regulations,  methods,  pro- 
grammes, &c.,  for  drawing  in  the  different  schools.  The  duties 
of  the  inspectors  were  more  clearly  defined  in  the  year  1870,  in 
four  articles  by  the  prefect,  M.  Henri  Chevreau  ;  and  a  circular 
by  the  present  "  Directeur  de  I'Enseignment"  Greard  still  further 
emphasizes  that  each  school  in  the  department  must  be  inspected 
at  least  twice  a  year,  and  that  a  detailed  report  must  be  made .  to 
the  prefect. 

The  attention  which  is  devoted  to  drawing  in  France,  and  the 
readiness  with  which  sacrifices  are  made  for  it,  have  no  doubt  been 


FRANCE.  107 

inspired  by  industry,  and  industry  has  repaid  the  outlay  with 
bountiful  interest.  It  needed  only  a  stroll  through  the  art-hall, 
however,  to  make  it  apparent  that  art  itself,  which  has  always 
been  at  the  service  of  the  manufactures  to  a  much  greater  extent 
in  France,  than  in  Germany,  is  likewise  recognized  by  the  govern- 
ment as  an  important  factor  of  industry.  Nearly  two-thirds  of 
the  1024  French  paintings  and  sculptures  were  marked  in  the 
catalogue:  "  Belonging  to  the  state"  ("  Appartient  a  Pfitat"). 
The  millions  expended  upon  them  are  abundantly  returned  to  the 
coffers  of  the  state  through  other  channels  ; l  and  this  policy  of 
France  in  respect  to  art  can  only  be  recommended  to  other  states. 
Let  the  laurel  decorate  not  only  the  sword,  but  also  the  lyre  of  a 
nation,  and  let  us  remember  the  lesson,  already  demonstrated  to 
us  by  antiquity,  that  art,  if  it  is  to  flourish,  must  be  fostered  by  the 
government.  But,  at  the  same  time,  let  no  nation  neglect  to 
educate  its  people  to  the  comprehension  of  art —  a  problem  which 
in  France,  quite  as  much  as  with  ourselves,  is  still  awaiting  its 
solution. 

1  The  statistics  of  commerce  showed  thirteen  hundred  millions  of  francs  in 
1851,  and  four  thousand  millions  in  18G9,  of  which  nearly  one-half  is  made  up 
by  articles  of  luxury. 


ITALY. 

THERE  are  few  branches  of  art-industry  whose  origin  and  first 
development  must  not  be  sought  upon  Italian  soil.  The  revolution 
which  took  place  in  art  in  this  country  during  the  Cinque-Cento 
acted  also  upon  the  art-industries.  While  in  art  the  human  figure 
suddenly  awoke  to  life,  in  art-industry  the  ornament  freed  itself 
from  its  rigid  architectural  framework,  shot  forth  in  an  abundance 
of  animated  forms,  and  developed  such  a  wealth  and  variety  of 
motives,  that,  even  after  the  pause  which  was  brought  about  by 
the  Baroque  period,  it  was  still  capable  of  becoming  the  never- 
failing  source  of  modern  industry.  The  Italian  Industrial  Exhibi- 
tion plainty  showed  how  the  development  of  form  in  art-industry 
can  be  influenced  by  good  examples. 

The  Italy  of  to-day  may,  indeed,  be  likened  to  a  museum  contain- 
ing the  monuments  of  all  those  branches  of  art  whose  triumphs 
were  achieved  upon  its  soil  a  few  hundred  years  ago.  With  these 
splendors  continually  before  its  eyes,  it  is  impossible  for  Italian 
industry  to  leave  its  noble  old  traditions.  It  continues  to  build  in 
the  same  direction,  uses  the  motives  already  in  existence,  and 
transplants  them,  as  the  gardener  transplants  his  flowers,  into  the 
most  varied  compositions  for  the  decoration  of  its  objects,  and  in 
this  manner  is  finally  led  to  original  invention  in  the  spirit  of  the 
ancients  themselves. 

But,  together  with  the  forms  of  the  Renaissance,  its  various 
technical  processes  have  also  been  inherited  ;  and  Italy  is  therefore 
still  unsurpassed  in  certain  departments  of  art  even  to-day.  The 
spirit  of  the  Renaissance  has  been  handed  down  undimmed  in 
the  ornament  as  applied  in  the  industries ;  but  in  the  figure,  that 
form  which  of  all  forms  is  the  most  truly  artistic,  it  has  descended 
from  sublime  solemnity  to  the  naive  and  the  profane.  It  made  a 
108 


ITALY.  109 

painful  impression  upon  the  lover  of  art  to  see  so  much  brilliant 
technical  execution,  in  the  Italian  sculptures,  wasted  upon  so  much 
that  was  unmeaning.  It  would  lead  us  too  far,  were  we  to  enter 
upon  the  principal  branches  of  Italian  art-industry  as  regards 
forms  and  technical  management.  The  skill  of  the  Italians  in 
glass  and  in  marble,  in  faiences,  bronzes,  and  above  all  in  wood- 
carvings,  is  an  inheritance  of  the  classical  period  of  the  fifteenth 
and  sixteenth  centuries.  The  traditional  education  in  the  matter 
of  form,  by  means  of  the  schools,  is  closety  connected  with  these 
various  branches  of  industry.  It  is  remarkable,  for  instance,  that 
in  the  ornamentation  of  textile  fabrics,  which  has  for  some  time 
been  ignored  in  the  schools,  the  traditions  of  the  Renaissance 
have  died  out  almost  entirely,  and  foreign  (French)  elements  have 
found  entrance  to  a  greater  extent  than  in  other  departments,  — 
a  proof  of  the  connection  which  exists  between  art-instruction  and 
the  modification  of  form  in  industry.  It  was  commerce,  undoubt- 
edly, which  prescribed  the  models  for  the  schools  in  Italy ;  and  the 
artists  trained  in  the  spirit  of  the  Renaissance  made  the  forms  of 
the  Renaissance  traditional ;  but,  when  the  artists  followed  the 
fashion  in  regard  to  French  flowers  in  the  designs  for  textile  fab- 
rics, the  schools  took  no  notice  of  the  fact.  Now,  if  the  design- 
ers in  this  branch  had  also  been  trained  in  the  classical  forms 
by  the  schools,  these  forms  would  certainly  have  maintained  the 
field. 

In  the  industrial  districts  of  Italy  drawing  is  indeed  more  than 
a  desideratum,  and  therefore  finds  the  most  careful  cultivation. 
The  "  scuola  tecnica"  very  generally  has  also  the  character  of  a 
technical  school  in  which  technical  aims  take  the  precedence  of 
the  elements  of  general  education.  The  drawings  gave  evidence 
everywhere  of  the  practical  purposes  of  the  decorator,  even  in 
linear  drawing,  in  which  the  geometrical  ornament  (mosaic  floors, 
&c.,)  always  played  an  important  part.  The  Exhibition  had  been 
abundantly  supplied  with  drawings  by  the  pupils.  All  the  prov- 
inces of  the  country,  far-off  Sicily  not  excepted,  were  represented 
by  portfolios ;  and,  in  view  of  the  mass  of  interesting  material,  it 
was  only  to  be  regretted  that  no  systematic  arrangement  had 
been  made,  either  geographically,  or  according  to  the  categories  of 
the  schools,  and  that  the  government  had  neglected  to  delegate  a 


110  ART  EDUCATION. 

specialist  to  the  Exhibition  who  might  have  supplied  further  in- 
formation. The  representation  of  the  course  of  instruction  had 
only  been  partially  kept  in  view  ;  generally  speaking,  mere  exhibi- 
tion pieces  had  been  sent,  i.e.,  the  best  productions  of  the  schol- 
ars. We  shall  begin  with  the  North  of  Italy,  that  part  which  was 
most  extensively  represented  in  the  Exhibition. 

The  "Istituto  Industriale  e  Professionale  "  of  Turin  exhibited 
specimens  by  its  pupils,  which  embraced  all  the  departments  of 
drawing.  The  drawings  of  the  technological  sections  were  espe- 
cially prominent,  and  the  course  of  instruction  in  the  preparatory 
class  could  be  clearly  traced  in  them.  In  the  special  courses  very 
good  specimens  in  machine-drawing  were  to  be  seen,  while  archi- 
tectural and  topographical  drawing  was  also  represented  by  ex- 
cellent work.  In  freehand  drawing  the  ornament  (in  lead)  was 
especially  brilliant.  Drawing  in  this  institution  is  intrusted  to 
the  excellent  management  of  Prof.  G.  A.  Boidi,  the  author  of 
many  works  in  this  specialty,  which  were  on  exhibition,  and  must 
here  be  mentioned.  His  "  Manuale  di  Disegno  Lineare  Geo- 
metrico  ' '  embraces  the  knowledge  of  form  applied  to  geometrical 
ornaments,  projection  applied  to  buildings,  and  the  most  impor- 
tant parts  of  perspective.  The  same  author's  "  L'Ingegnere," 
*.n  which  descriptive  geometry  is  thoroughly  treated,  the  examples 
being  mostly  selected  from  machinery,  may  be  looked  upon  as  a 
continuation  of  the  first  work  for  the  higher  classes.  For  archi- 
tecture the  "  Corso  Compiuto  di  Disegno  Geometrico  Industriale  " 
offers  an  excellent  school  in  construction,  while  the  "  Manuale  di 
Disegno  Architectonico  "  contains  beautiful  motives  for  architec- 
tural decoration. 

Boidi' s  "•Corso  Eleinentare  d'Ornato  "  has  been  designed  for 
the  first  stages  of  instruction  in  freehand  drawing,  in  accordance 
with  the  legal  requirements  of  the  plan  of  instruction.  It  pro- 
gresses gradually  from  simple  leaf-forms  to  move  developed  orna- 
ment, and  is  succeeded  by  the  "  Corso  Progressive  d'Ornato 
Ombreggiato  a  Due  Dinti,"  which  serves  as  a  preparation  for 
drawing  from  nature,  and  embraces  Renaissance  forms  as  well  as 
Gothic  forms.  It  is  somewhat  hindering  in  these  copies,  that  the 
tint  fills  in  only  the  outlines  of  the  figures,  while  the  background 
is  left  white  ;  otherwise  the  execution,  and  the  treatment  of  form, 


ITALY.  Ill 

are  very  neat.  For  female  industry  the  author  has  published  a 
"  Corso  di  Disegno  a  Mano  Libera,"  flowers  executed  in  sepia  and 
in  colors  ;  but  this  is  not  as  successful  as  the  other  works.  The 
motives  in  the  ^  Corso  di  Disegno  Applicato  ai  Lavori  Don- 
nesche  "  are  entirely  in  French  taste.  Boidi  has  extended  his  activ- 
ity also  to  topographical  drawing,  as  was  shown  by  his  "  Corso 
Metodico  Teorico-Pratico  di  Disegno  Topografico,"  in  which  the 
elements  of  this  branch  of  drawing  are  arranged  in  good  order. 

The  "  Scuola  di  Ornamentacione  del  R.  Museo  Industriale  "  of 
Turin  was  represented  by  very  beautiful  modellings,  which  were 
especially  brilliant  in  their  virtuosity  of  execution  and  their  mas- 
tery of  form.  Prof.  Pietro  Giusti,  the  director  of  the  school,  ex- 
hibited a  frame  artistically  carved  in  wood,  in  which  an  abundance 
of  charming  motives  in  the  style  of  the  early  Renaissance  had 
been  united  into  a  whole.  Two  volumes  of  drawings  of  designs 
for  decorative  wood-carvings,  by  Giusti,  were  also  submitted. 
They  adhered  throughout  to  the  spirit  of  the  Renaissance,  and,  by 
introducing  the  forms  of  figures  and  animals,  offered  many  new 
and  original  motives. 

In  the  "  Scuola  Governativa  di  Po,"  of  Turin,  older  French  ex- 
amples are  mostly  used,  and  the  results  were  of  less  importance. 

Very  good  specimens  were  exhibited  by  the  "  Scuola  Civica  Fem- 
inile  di  Disegno  Industriale,"  at  Genoa  ;  they  also  gave  an  insight 
into  the  method  in  use  in  the  institution,  which  in  many  respects 
is  identical  with  that  employed  in  France.  The  pupils  begin  by 
sketching  simple  forms  on  a  large  scale  with  charcoal  on  gray 
paper,  and  then  draw  the  outlines  with  brush  and  India  ink ;  in 
the  further  prosecution  of  the  exercises  the  surfaces  are  laid  in 
with  the  brush  and  the  forms  are  drawn  with  the  pern,  This  is 
followed  up  by  drawing  from  wire-models,  from  geometrical  solids, 
and  from  casts  of  ornaments.  In  the  higher  courses,  drawing 
from  nature  is  extended  to  other  objects,  such  as  flowers,  fruit, 
&c.,  ornaments  for  flat  surfaces  in  color  being  practiced  at  the 
same  time.  Finally,  after  the  requisite  preparatory  studies  have 
been  made,  the  pupils  are  exercised  in  original  composition.  The 
designs  of  this  kind  which  were  on  exhibition  deserved  unquali- 
fied praise  for  their  technical  execution,  as  well  as  for  their  taste- 
ful style.  In  some  cases,  natural  flowers  played  so  delicately  and 


112  ART  EDUCATION. 

gracefully  about  the  forms  of  the  Renaissance,  that  these  two 
decorative  elements  united  with  each  other  quite  harmoniously, 
although  they  are  in  themselves  incongruous. 

In  the  "  Scuola  Professionale  per  le  Artigani  "  French  taste  pre- 
vails almost  exclusively.  This  school  also  gave  a  comprehensive 
survey  of  its  course  of  instruction.  The  drawings  of  the  "  Scuola 
Tecnica  Occidentale,"  of  Genoa,  did  not  offer  any  thing  especially 
interesting. 

The  "  Istituto  Tecnico"  of  Alessandria  submitted  very  attract- 
ive specimens  by  its  pupils.  Freehand  as  well  as  linear  drawing 
showed  a  very  correct  course  of  instruction ;  and  machine  and 
architectural  drawing  was  particularly  well  represented.  The 
topographical  drawings  were  also  very  praiseworthy ;  in  figure- 
drawing,  however,  deficiencies  were  noticeable,  which  made  them- 
selves felt  also  in  ornament  wherever  figures  had  been  introduced. 
The  institution  at  Guneo,  of  a  similar  character,  had  sent  beau- 
tifully executed  outline  ornaments  and  architectural  drawings, 
and  pretty  drawings  of  furniture,  &c.  From  Milan  only  the 
"  Scuola  Superiore  di  Agricoltura  "  had  sent  some  drawings  by  its 
pupils.  Among  them  there  were  to  be  found  landscapes  (Calame) 
in  pencil  on  tinted  paper,  heightened  with  white,  of  especially  neat 
and  clever  execution  ;  also  flowers  from  French  examples,  which, 
however,  did  not  come  up  to  the  originals.  Drawings  from  casts 
of  ornaments,  exceedingly  minute  in  execution,  were  sent  by  the 
u  Reale  Scuola  Tecnica  "  of  Pavia.  The  drawings  were  executed 
partly  in  pencil  or  crayon,  partly  in  India  ink,  and  the  relief  had 
been  imitated  to  the  point  of  photographic  illusion ;  the  same 
almost  excessive  execution  was  noticeable  in  linear  drawing, 
where,  especially  in  the  perspective  studies  of  stereometric  bodies, 
the  ne  plus  ultra  of  finical  execution  with  the  brush  had  been 
reached.  On  the  other  hand,  the  really  constructive,  the  geometri- 
cal element  in  itself,  appeared  to  have  been  neglected,  geometrical 
ornaments  and  architectural  decorations  being  prevalent.  The 
"  Scuola  Tecnica  "  of  Lodi  exhibited  good  ornaments  and  India- 
ink  drawings  from  geometrical  bodies  ;  in  linear  drawing :  con- 
structions, the  orders  of  columns,  and  mosaic  floors.  The  work 
of  the  "  Scuola  Serale  di  Carita"  at  Lodi  was  less  attractive. 
At  the  "Scuola  Popolare  della  Societa  d'Industriale  e  Belle 


ITALY.  113 

Arti,"  in  Vigevano-Lomellina,  drawing  is  practiced  without  the 
least  system.  A  good  commencement  is  made  in  ornament  after 
the  French  manner;  but  otherwise  landscapes,  flowers,  &c.,  are 
copied  purely  after  the  amateur  fashion,  while  drawing  from  the 
cast  is  very  deficient.  The  specimens  sent  by  the  "  Scuola  Com- 
munale  Maschile-Feminile  "  of  Codogno,  although  consisting  only 
of  show-pieces,  must  also  be  condemned.  With  the  exception  of 
some  well-drawn  heads,  all  these  specimens  exhibited  a  want  of 
training,  of  comprehension  of  form,  and  of  execution. 

Very  excellent  specimens  in  linear  drawing  were  shown  by  the 
"Istituto  Tecnico"  of  Mantua  in  machine  drawing  and  archi- 
tecture, as  well  as  in  topographical  drawing.  The  "  Reale  Isti- 
tuto Industrial  "  at  Piacenza  exhibited  a  collection  of  casts  from 
nature  and  from  ornaments,  which  can  be  recommended  for  instruc- 
tion in  drawing. 

The  "  Patrio  Istituto  Manin  "  of  Venice  was  also  represented  at 
Vienna  by  superior  specimens,  the  same  as  at  Paris  at  the  time 
of  the  last  Exhibition.  In  the  first  course  instruction  progresses 
from  simple  geometrical  forms  to  more  complicated  ornaments  in 
the  usual  manner  ;  and  in  the  second  course  drawing  from  plastic 
models  is  taken  up.  These  drawings  (in  India  ink  and  in  pencil) 
were  most  exact  and  artistic  in  their  execution.  The  main  stress, 
however,  is  laid  upon  drawing  with  reference  to  the  various  spe- 
cialties, all  branches  of  which  were  represented  by  eminently 
successful  specimens.  Linear  drawing  appears  to  receive  less 
care.  Quite  a  peculiar  method  is  employed  for  the  first  stages 
of  instruction  in  the  "Reale  Scuola  Tecnica"  at  Venice.  Con- 
structive perspective  is  here  practiced ;  but  freehand  work  is 
sometimes  introduced  into  the  same  drawing  (glaring  mistakes, 
however,  were  noticeable  here  and  there)  ;  this  is  followed  up  by 
the  study  of  objects  from  nature  (minutely  executed),  and  con- 
structive drawing  of  a  very  defective  quality.  The  greatest  part 
of  the  labor  in  most  of  these  drawings  had,  however,  been  expended 
upon  the  borders  surrounding  them.  These  borders  were  frequently 
quite  artistic  in  execution,  the  most  complicated  Greek  and  Renais- 
sance ornaments  having  been  employed  ;  and  they  must  have  taken 
three  or  four  times  the  time  devoted  to  the  drawings  themselves. 
The  projections  were  good,  and  tolerably  well  finished;  there  were 
8 


114  ART  EDUCATION. 

likewise  ornaments  from  casts,  executed  in  the  well-known  brilliant 
manner,  sometimes  grouped  together  with  other  objects  in  small 
groups  of  "  still  life,"  frequently  quite  picturesque,  but  always 
treated  as  show-pieces.  Such  work  will  ever  remain  a  waste  of 
time. 

The  "  Scuola  Tecnica  e  Serale  "  at  Ravenna  exhibited  large  draw- 
ings of  Renaissance  ornaments,  partly  in  good  outlines,  partly  in 
India  ink ;  and  larger  groups  of  models  and  vessels  in  color,  as 
well  as  pretty  architectural  pieces.  The  specimens  by  the  "  Scuola 
Tecnica"  at  Treviso  stood  upon  the  same  level ;  projection-draw- 
ing in  this  school  is  also  good,  and,  as  an  exception,  figure^ 
drawing  likewise. 

At  the  "Istituto  Tecnico"  of  Udine  constructive  drawing  and 
descriptive  geometry  are  practiced  pretty  thoroughly,  and  are  suc- 
ceeded by  geometrical  ornament  (mosaic  floors)  and  the  orders  of 
columns ;  in  freehand-drawing,  surface  ornament  in  color  is  culti- 
vated more  especially.  Prettily-drawn  ornaments  in  pencil  and  in 
India  ink,  from  the  "  Reale  Scuola  Tecnica  e  Scuola  Festiva," 
must  also  be  mentioned ;  but  the  arrangement  of  the  specimens 
was  tolerably  unsystematical. 

Turning  now  to  the  South,  we  must  notice  first  of  all  the  splen- 
did achievements  of  the  "  Scuola  Tecnica  Pareggiata  "  of  Ferrara. 

The  drawings  of  this  school,  almost  exclusively  Renaissance 
ornaments,  were  executed  with  admirable  delicacy  partly  in  pen- 
cil, partly  in  India  ink,  and  color.  Among  them  those  pictures 
of  groups  of  objects  were  again  especially  brilliant,  which  find  such 
general  favor  in  Italy.  In  linear  drawing  there  were  good  studies 
in  projection,  columns,  arches,  &c.  The  achievements  in  free- 
hand-drawing of  the  "  Scuola  Tecnica  Diurna  "  of  Bologne  were 
equally  good,  a  stronger  emphasis,  however,  having  been  laid  upon 
colored  decoration ;  the  institution  also  submitted  good  architectural 
drawings.  But  the  specimens  of  the  "  Scuola  Tecnica  Serale  "  of 
the  same  citj7  were  among  the  most  prominent  of  the  whole  Exhi- 
bition. Among  them  there  were  to  be  found  large  decorative 
Renaissance  ornaments  (in  various  styles  of  execution) ,  represen- 
tations of  "  still  life  "  of  amazing  virtuosity,  flowers,  fruit,  &c., 
drawings  from  jewelry  of  the  best  period,  charming  vessels,  furni- 
ture ;  in  short,  studies  for  all  branches  of  art-industry. 


ITALY.  115 

The  technical  communal  school  "  Dante  "  at  Florence  gave  a 
very  comprehensive  survey  of  its  course  of  instruction,  and  of  the 
method  emplo}<ed  in  drawing,  by  an  exhibition  of  the  work  of  its 
pupils.  The  school  proposes  to  give  a  suitable  general  education 
to  all  young  persons  who  desire  to  devote  themselves  to  some  defi- 
nite calling,  either  in  the  service  of  the  state,  in  industry,  or  in 
agriculture.  The  special  education  of  its  pupils  is  afterwards 
completed  at  the  technical  high  schools. 

The  school  is  divided  into  four  classes ;  and  in  the  first  class 
five  hours,  in  each  of  the  others  nine  hours,  are  devoted  to  draw- 
ing. The  freehand-drawings,  progressing  systematically  from 
simple  outlines  to  ornaments  in  plaster,  were  among  the  best 
exhibited  by  the  intermediate  schools  of  Italy.  The  simplest 
means  of  execution  are  made  use  of,  frequently  the  lead-pencil 
only ;  but  the  handling  is  of  a  tenderness  and  a  delicacy  which 
must  be  called  admirable,  in  view  of  the  age  of  the  pupils  (thir- 
teen to  seventeen  years).  Besides  the  plastic  drawings,  there 
were  also  flat  ornaments  (early  Renaissance)  of  exemplary  treat- 
ment. Linear  drawing  is  practiced  much  the  same  as  in  our  Real- 
Schools,  with  immediate  application  to  architecture  and  machinery. 
Very  excellent  specimens,  especially  as  far  as  descriptive  geometry 
and  machine  drawing  are  concerned,  were  also  exhibited  by  the 
"  Scuola  Tecnica  Municipale  Leon  Battista  Alberti ; "  the  free- 
hand drawings  displayed  throughout  a  delicate,  artistic,  but  nev- 
ertheless precise  treatment. 

The  "  Scuola  Tecnica"  at  Perugia,  besides  good  ornaments, 
exhibited  also  remarkably  beautiful  drawings  of  Renaissance  ves- 
sels, inlaid  furniture,  &c.  The  "  Scuola  Maschile"  of  the  same 
city  confines  itself  almost  entirely  to  the  construction  of  mosaic 
floors.  The  "Scuola  Tecnica"  at  Orvieto  was  represented  by 
splendid  freehand  drawings ;  its  course  of  instruction  was  well 
displa3'ed.  The  ornaments  from  casts  in  India  ink  (which  the 
Italians  prefer  to  use  for  this  purpose) ,  were  again  of  the  utmost 
delicac}7  of  execution ;  geometrical  drawing  was  not  as  strong ; 
the  projections,  on  the  contrary,  were  good.  The  "  Scuola  Tec- 
nica ' '  of  Lodi  made  a  brilliant  exhibition  of  drawings  of  every 
description ;  the  drawings  from  casts  were  again  mostly  in  India 
ink,  while  architectural  pieces,  decorations,  &c.,  were  charmingly 


116  ART  EDUCATION. 

hatched  with  the  pen.  Marvels  of  execution  were  also  to  be  seen 
in  the  construction  of  shadows  ;  the  beholder  admires  the  patience, 
the  technical  skill,  and  is  pleased  with  the  beauty  of  the  work ; 
but  the  voice  of  reason  must  nevertheless  pronounce  all  such  work 
to  be  waste  of  time.  The  achievements  of  this  school  in  linear 
drawing  are  equalled  in  freehand  drawing  by  the  "  Scuola  Tecnica 
di  Disegno  in  Sant  Arcangelo  di  Romagna."  This  school  exhib- 
ited large  drawings  of  Florentine  and  Roman  Renaissance  monu- 
ments, which  were  represented  in  such  perfection,  that  it  seemed 
a  pity  not  to  have  executed  them  upon  stone ;  they  would  have 
made  a  most  splendid  work. 

The  technical  schools  of  Arcolipiceno  and  Pistoja  must  like- 
wise be  mentioned  for  their  good  results ;  the  institution  at  the 
last-named  place  gave  a  good  presentation  of  its  plan  of  instruc- 
tion by  means  of  the  work  of  its  pupil's. 

Farther  South  the  schools  of  Naples  occupied  the  most  promi- 
nent rank.  The  "  Scuola  di  Disegno  Applicato  alle  Arti"  of  the 
"  Societa  Centrale  Operaria  Nationale  "  exhibited  very  successful 
specimens.  All  the  branches  of  drawing  are  practiced  at  this 
institution,  and  the  practical  purpose,  the  application,  is  continu- 
ally kept  in  view;  figure-drawing,  which  is  neglected  almost 
everywhere  in  Italy,  if  we  except  a  few  schools  in  the  North,  was 
also  represented  by  very  pretty  drawings  in  some  of  its  branches.  It 
is  superfluous,  probably,  to  say  that  "  Julien"  is  used  exclusively. 
Besides  the  institution  just  named,  the  well-known  "Reali  Istituti 
Tecnico  e  di  Marina  Mercantile"  had  also  submitted  specimens 
of  their  drawings,  which  again  confirmed  the  reputation  of  these 
schools  in  architecture,  as  well  as  in  machine  and  ship  building. 
Of  freehand  drawings  we  must  mention  the  ornaments  in  crayon, 
of  beautiful  execution.  The  institution  also  exhibited  the  plans 
and  views  of  its  building.  In  this  connection  it  will  be  proper  to 
notice  also  the  excellent  results  in  technical  drawing  for  maritime 
purposes  of  the  "  R.  Istituto  di  Marina  Mercantile  di  Piano,"  at 
Sorrento. 

Having  finally  mentioned  the  satisfactory  results  of  the  "  Scuo- 
la Tecnica  Provinca "  at  Salerno,  we  have  touched  upon  all  that 
was  of  special  importance  among  the  work  of  the  pupils  sent  to 
Vienna  from  the  Italian  peninsula. 


ITALY,  117 

From  the  island  of  Sicily  the  "  Societa  Operaria,"  of  Messina, 
had  sent  some  drawings,  which,  however,  left  much  to  be  desired 
in  choice  of  models,  as  well  as  in  execution.  They  were  princi- 
pally figure-studies,  among  which  those  after  Julien  must  be 
called  the  best,  in  spite  of  their  deficiencies.  Academical  studies 
had  been  copied  (probably  from  drawings)  without  the  least 
understanding ;  and  the  shaded  ornaments  were  wanting  in  that 
delicacy  of  execution  which  otherwise  is  the  peculiar  characteris- 
tic of  the  Italians.  The  "  Scuola  Tecnica"  at  Nola,  on  the  con- 
trary, exhibited  very  pretty  results  ;  linear  and  freehand  drawing 
is  there  practiced  according  to  the  usual  method,  and  the  success 
attained  deserves  full  praise. 

From  the  island  of  Sardinia  the  "  Scuola  Tecnica"  at  Cagliari 
had  sent  specimens  of  the  work  of  its  pupils,  among  which,  how- 
ever, only  the  linear  drawings  deserved  to  be  called  good ;  free- 
hand-drawing in  ornament  and  in  figures  (from  French  originals) 
is  practiced  without  system  and  without  results. 

It  will  be  seen  from  the  remarks  made  in  the  preceding  para- 
graphs, that  exertions  are  not  lacking  in  Italy  to  keep  alive  the  tradi- 
tions of  its  rich  art-industry,  and  to  train  new  agents  for  its  service. 
The  fact,  that  the  forms  employed  do  not  go  beyond  this  tradition, 
and  that  very  little  progress  has  consequently  been  made  for  years, 
is  mainly  owing  to  the  schools,  which  content  themselves  with  im- 
itating old  examples,  and  neglect  to  introduce  new  elements  from 
the  universal  fountain-head  of  all  art,  —  from  nature.  Even  the 
absence  of  figure-drawing  is  sufficient  to  act  as  a  check  upon  the 
free  development  of  the  ornament ;  and  this  subject  will  have  to 
receive  attention  above  every  thing  else,  if  the  people  are  to  be 
educated  to  a  higher  comprehension  of  art.  The  Italian  indus- 
tries of  to-day,  unlike  those  of  the  Cinque-Cento,  have  no  great 
art  at  their  side,  from  which  they  might  receive  a  further  impulse. 
They  plod  along  the  old  roads  in  solitude,  and  are  content  with 
preserving  the  intellectual  elements  bequeathed  to  them  by  former  . 
times. 

To  be  sure,  the  time  during  which  reformatory  movements  in 
art-industry  have  been  made  consciously  has  been  but  short  as 
yet,  and  the  monumental  world  of  Italy  is  far  from  being  ex- 
hausted. But  it  seems  as  if  a  freer  intellectual  movement  in  the 


118  ART  EDUCATION. 

spirit  of  progress  ought  to  take  place  earlier  than  anywhere  else 
in  that  country  in  which  the  noblest  forms  have  their  home. 

Looking  over  the  publications  issued  throughout  the  world  for 
purposes  of  art-instruction  during  the  last  twenty  years,  we  shall 
find  that  certainly  two-thirds  of  their  contents  are  taken  from  the 
monuments  of  Italy.  England,  France,  Germany,  and  Austria 
have  drawn  upon  the  treasures  of  this  country  for  the  education  of 
their  own  art,  and  have  employed  them  as  means  for  the  improve- 
ment of  taste. 

So  far  the  political  condition  of  Italy  has  undoubtedly  been  the 
principal  cause  why  the  materials  to  be  found  in  the  country  have 
not  been  turned  to  advantage  more  independently.  Now  that  the 
unity  has  been  attained  which  was  so  long  striven  for,  a  more  satis- 
factory activity  may  also  be  expected  in  the  direction  of  art.  The 
later  publications  for  instruction  in  drawing  and  in  art  consist 
mainly  of  photographs,  which,  as  is  well  known,  have  been 
brought  to  the  highest  state  of  perfection  in  Italy,  especially  for 
the  reproduction  of  paintings,  &c.  Besides  large  copies  of  the 
paintings  of  the  classical  masters,  we  must  not  forget  to  mention 
the  highly  interesting  and  superior  publication  of  the  drawings  in 
the  Pinakotheka  of  Venice,  by  A.  Srini.  The  old  city  of  the 
Tiber,  with  its  surroundings,  appeared  bodily  at  the  exhibition  in 
the  splendid  pictures  (by  Fratelli  Rosa)  published  under  the  title, 
"  Sulle  Scoperte  Archeologiche  nelle  Citta  e  Provincia  di  Roma 
negli  Anni  1871-1872." 

Of  lithographic  works  we  may  finally  mention  "  Racolta  di  Or- 
namenti,"  from  terra-cottas  at  Siena  (fifteenth  and  sixteenth  cen- 
turies) by  S.  Rotellini  and  G.  Breuci  (Siena,  1873),  consisting  of 
charming  Renaissance  motives  composed  for  the  most  varied 
spaces  ;  and  "  Musaici  Ghristiani  e  Saggi  Pavimenti  della  Chiese 
di  Roma"  (fifteenth  century),  by  G.  B.  di  Rossi,  beautifully  exe- 
cuted in  chromolithography. 


ENGLAND. 

PROMINENT  mention  has  before  been  made  of  the  fact  that  Eng- 
land, after  the  first  London  World's  Fair  of  1851,  preceded  all  the 
other  states  of  Europe  in  endeavoring  to  reform  the  taste  then 
prevalent  in  art-industry,  and  thereby  to  elevate  the  standard  of 
her  own  industrial  products.  As  a  central  point  for  this  under- 
taking, the  South  Kensington  Museum,  with  the  Art-School  attached 
to  it,  was  established,  and  a  special  administrative  Science  and 
Art  Department  was  created.  "  Schools  of  Art "  were  also  estab- 
lished in  all  the  more  important  industrial  cities  of  the  country 
(above  one  hundred  so  far),  in  which  instruction  is  given  in  draw- 
ing, painting,  and  modelling,  according  to  the  necessities  of  the 
several  localities.  All  the  examples  used  by  these  schools  issue 
from  their  centre,  —  the  rich  collection  of  the  institution  just  named, 
which  also  exercises  its  influence  upon  art-instruction  in  various 
other  ways.  Besides  the  art-schools,  there  are  also  numerous 
evening  classes  for  those  engaged  in  industrial  pursuits,  all  of 
which  have  the  same  object.1 

Two  decades  have  passed  by  since  this  movement  commenced  in 
England ;  and  the  revolution  in  English  industry,  in  relation  to 
refinement  of  style,  has  been  followed  with  great  interest  at  all  the 
World's  Fairs.  England's  participation  at  the  Vienna  Exhibition 
was  likewise  looked  forward  to  with  great  expectations ;  and  it 
was  hoped  that  an  interesting  picture,  especially  in  regard  to  art- 
industrial  instruction,  would  here  be  shown.  But  these  hopes  were 

1  The  organization  of  the  museums  and  of  art-instruction  in  England  has 
been  treated  in  detail  in  the  Austrian  reports  on  the  World's  Fairs  of  1862 
and  1867.  A  more  comprehensive  review  of  the  situation  is  given  by  Dr.  Her- 
mann Schwabe :  "  Die  Forderung  der  Kunstindustrie  in  England,  &c."  Berlin, 
1866. 

119 


120  ART  EDUCATION. 

disappointed.  England  concentrated  her  attention  upon  the  repre- 
sentation of  her  colonies  ;  she  unfolded  her  Asiatic  riches,  while 
her  native  industry  was  represented  very  incompletely,  and  her 
educational  system  very  inefficiently.  Nothing  was  to  be  seen  but 
some  specimens  by  the  pupils  of  the  Kensington  School,  and  a  few 
of  the  publications  of  this  institution.  It  certainly  seemed  strange 
that  the  country  from  which  the  idea  of  World's  Fairs  had  first 
emanated  should  so  ignore  the  important  chapter  of  art-education, 
to  which  it  owes  its  present  position  in  industry  as  compared  to 
other  states. 

Everybody  perceives  that  the  influence  of  the  English  art-schools 
in  the  matter  of  form  within  the  last  twenty  years  has  been  of  the 
greatest  importance.  Still  the  aims  originally  proposed  are  far  from 
having  been  reached ;  and  it  will  not  yet  do  for  the  schools  to  rest 
upon  their  laurels,  although  the  success  of  art-instruction  may 
already  be  traced  in  English  art-industry.  Taste  has  refined  itself 
decidedly,  and  the  forms  of  industrial  products  in  general  are  more 
artistic,  and  of  a  better  style.  But  they  are  still  far  from  moving  in 
a  uniform  track ;  on  the  contrary,  they  diverge  into  all  styles  and 
all  directions.  It  would  appear  that  an  independent  position  has 
been  taken  by  English  art  in  the  ornamentation  of  flat  surfaces 
only.  In  this  department,  there  is  observable  -a  unity  of  forms  of 
a  decidedly  modern  style.  The  same  may  also  be  said  of  furniture, 
into  which  polychrome  surface-ornamentation  has  been  introduced. 
But  in  silverware,  bronzes,  faiences,  and  majolicas,  the  whole 
history  of  art  is  illustrated,  from  ancient  India  down  to  the  epoch 
of  the  Baroque  style.  No  doubt  the  historical  technique  in  these 
latter  branches  of  industry  very  generally  demands  also  the  his- 
torical style,  since,  as  a  rule,  more  attention  is  paid  to  the  demands 
of  connaisseurs  than  to  an  artistic  taste.  In  the  future  the  princi- 
pal task  of  the  scientific  direction  of  art-instruction  in  England 
will  probably  be  to  check  this  dispersion  among  all  the  various 
styles,  and  to  lead  from  imitation  to  original  creation.  It  is, 
however,  still  a  question  of  time,  whether  England  will  ever  be 
able  to  attain  to  the  position  of  recognized  leadership  in  art  and 
art-industry,  as  far  as  the  technique  is  concerned.1  In  this  the 

1  The  above  sentence  has  been  left  as  it  stands  in  the  original,  although  the 
word  "  technique  "  appears  to  have  crept  in  by  a  mistake.  The  context  makes 
it  evident  that  the  "artistic  spirit"  is  alluded  to.—Transl 


ENGLAND.  121 

French  and  the  Germans  of  to-day  are  far  in  the  advance  ;  and  it 
need  not  astonish  us  when  we  find  that  the  most  beautiful  produc- 
tions of  the  firm  "  Minton,"  for  example,  owe  their  origin  to 
French  and  to  German  artists.  The  English  nation  is  indeed  an 
art-loving,  but  on  the  whole  not  an  artistic  nation,  as  any  unpre- 
judiced observer  might  again  have  noticed  in  the  Art-Hall.  And 
it  will  always  remain  problematic  whether  art-industry  can  of  itself 
attain  to  the  highest  degree  of  development  in  a  country  in  which 
art  proper  does  not  occupy  a  leading  position. 

In  spite  of  all  successes,  the  matter  of  form  in  England  is  still 
in  a  state  of  fermentation ;  and  it  will  only  be  possible  at  some 
later  period,  when  the  process  of  clarification  shall  have  been  com- 
pleted, to  arrive  at  a  judgment  of  the  value  of  the  art-educational 
apparatus,  which  has  been  put  in  motion  with  such  good  intentions. 

If  we  now  take  a  look  at  the  exhibition  of  the  Kensington 
School,  we  shall  find  neat  productions  of  good  style  in  all  branches 
of  art-industry,  revealing  throughout  the  effort  to  attain  to  a  uni- 
form principle  in  harmony  with  the  spirit  of  the  reform.  The 
results  could  not  be  called  brilliant ;  on  the  whole,  they  left 
one  cool.  The  authorities  of  the  Museum  had  arranged  a  table 
of  the  class-divisions  of  the  institution,  and  had  endeavored  as 
much  as  possible  to  exhibit  something  of  each  branch.  But 
this  had  a  tendency  to  cut  up  the  picture  of  the  activity  of  the 
school,  as  two  or  three  specimens  of  a  special  division  were  not 
sufficient  to  give  an  idea  of  its  character.  The  authorities  had 
also  neglected  to  provide  the  programmes  of  the  institution  since 
1867,  which  might  have  helped  to  supplement  the  fragmentary 
nature  of  the  Exhibition.  The  course  of  instruction  in  the  pre- 
paratory classes  could  be  traced  only  with  difficulty.  Of  the  work 
of  these  classes  there  were  to  be  seen  ornaments  from  casts  in  out- 
line ;  others  shaded  in  sepia,  and  geometrical  models  executed  in 
crayon.  By  the  higher  (special)  classes  there  were  exhibited 
copies  of  original  models  in  various  stjles,  studies  from  nature, 
and  original  compositions ;  the  best*  among  these  were  sketches 
for  the  ornamentation  of  flat  surfaces,  paper-hangings,  textile 
fabrics,  &c.  The  flower  is  carefully  studied,  and  is  applied  to 
ornament  in  a  very  excellent  manner ;  only  here  and  there,  espe- 
cially in  the  designs  for  fans,  did  its  application  recall  French  taste. 


122  ART  EDUCATION. 

The  composition  of  the  ornament  is  always  made  with  reference  to 
the  finished  object,  and  its  purpose  is  invariably  kept  in  view. 

Figure-drawing  played  a  more  subordinate  part  among  the  spe- 
cimens exhibited.  Although  sonie  of  the  antique  statues  left 
nothing  to  be  desired  in  careful  execution,  the  anatomical  studies 
(from  the  Discobolus)  were  sufficient  to  expose  its  weakness. 

Of  studies  from  nature  (academical  drawings) ,  only  a  few  were 
shown. 

Of  sculptures  there  were  to  be  found  only  some  ornaments,  and 
reliefs  with  figures,  of  no  special  importance.  The  best  of  them 
was  a  relief  of  the  (anatomical)  Discobolus,  in  which  the  forms 
were  correctly  and  truthfully  given. 

Of  linear  drawings  there  were  submitted  studies  in  projection 
and  perspective,  a  few  machine-drawings,  and  pretty  architectural 
drawings,  among  which  interior  decorations  of  good  style  deserve 
prominent  mention.  A  restoration  of  the  Lysikrates  monument  at 
Athens,  following  Hansen's  plan  with  but  unimportant  devia- 
tions, merits  a  notice  for  its  neat,  painstaking  execution. 

But  the  most  important  specimens  exhibited  ~by  the  institution 
consisted  of  the  etchings  executed  by  the  scholars  from  objects  in 
the  museum,  for  the  purpose  of  dissemination.  This  exceedingly 
rich  collection  embraced  plates  of  great  beauty.  The  chromolith- 
ographs from  originals  in  the  museum,  published  b}T  the  institution, 
are  also  worthy  of  all  praise.  The  decorative  drawings,  "The 
Twelve  Months"  and  "  The  Four  Seasons,"  composed  by  E.  F. 
Poynter,  A.R.A.,  an  artist  of  great  talent,  for  the  Kensington 
Museum  (as  "  decorative  designs  for  the  Grill  Room  ") ,  must  like- 
wise be  mentioned. 

It  has  before  been  observed  that  the  foreign  possessions  of 
England  were  represented  on  a  very  comprehensive  scale.  Among 
them  India,  with  its  industry  and  its  treasures  of  art,  stood  in 
the  first  rank.  The  exposition  of  the  School  of  Art  at  Bombay, 
consisting  of  models  and  drawings  by  the  pupils,  as  well  as  of 
photographs  from  such,  was  ^ery  interesting.  The  tendency  of 
this  school,  in  regard  to  stjle,  is  quite  peculiar.  Flowers  are 
used  as  subjects  of  study  in  modelling  and  in  drawing,  while 
old  Hindoo  forms  and  the  forms  of  the  European  Renaissance  are 
employed  in  ornamentation.  The  compositions  resulting  from 


ENGLAND.  123 

these  three  different  elements  exhibited  but  little  unity,  and  were 
generally  overladen.  The  best  among  them  were  perhaps  those  in 
which  the  old  native  forms  had  been  imitated.  The  attempts  at 
artistic  figure-painting  did  not  rise  perceptibly  above  the  ordinary 
productions  of  amateurs.1 

1  The  English  Art-Educational  Institutions  are  very  highly  spoken  of  in  the 
Reports  on  the  Exposition  of  1867,  which  Prof.  Langl  alludes  to  on  p.  119. 

Dr.  A.  Kornhuber,  Professor  at  the  Polytechnic  Institute  at  Vienna,  and 
member  of  the  International  Jury  at  Paris,  1867  (Class  90),  says,  in  his  "Report 
on  Intermediate  and  Industrial  Instruction"  (Austrian  Report  on  the  Exposi- 
tion, vol.  vi.  part  xi.  pp.  272,  273):  — 

"  It  is  only  since  1833  that  the  English  Government  has  taken  any  part  in 
education  by  extending  its  support  to  the  People's  Schools;  and  in  1853  it 
created  a  special  administrative  'Science  and  Art  Department.'  Branch- 
schools  all  over  the  country  are  connected  with  this  department,  among  them 
ninety-two  '  Schools  of  Art,'  which  in  1865  were  attended  by  16,621  pupils, 
and  in  which  instruction  is  given  in  drawing,  painting,  modelling,  and  in  com- 
posing original  designs  for  manufacturing  and  decorative  purposes,  the  in- 
struction being  intended  more  especially  for  the  benefit  of  the  industrial 
classes.  The  Schools  of  Art  also  extend  their  instruction  to  the  Elementary 
Schools,  and  89,267  children  partook  of  it  in  the  year  named.  Night-classes 
have  also  been  opened  for  those  who  are  engaged  in  industrial  pursuits  during 
the  day ;  and  besides  all  this  the  excellent  collection  of  the  South  Kensington 
Museum  (administered  by  the  Science  and  Art  Department)  serves  as  a  central 
depot  of  examples  and  copies  which  are  put  to  practical  use  all  over  the  coun- 
try, as  far  as  possible.  .  .  . 

"  The  '  Schools  of  Art '  have  proved  to  be  very  useful,  and  have  been  exceed- 
ingly beneficial  in  their  influence  upon  the  working  population  of  England; 
for  the  instruction  given  in  these  schools  does  not  only  make  the  artisans 
more  skilful,  but  it  also  animates  and  enables  them  to  improve  old  objects, 
and  to  discover  new  processes,  and  thus  elevates  their  social  position,  while 
increasing  the  producing  power  of  the  country.  The  usefulness  of  these 
schools  is  seen  above  all  in  the  manufacture  of  machinery,  the  notable  prog- 
ress in  which  is  mainly  owing  to  them.  The  Art  School  at  Birmingham  gave 
an  extraordinary  impetus  to  the  production  of  decorative  furniture,  of  papier- 
mache",  and  to  the  manufacture  of  jewelry;  the  school  at  Dundee  (with  1,922 
pupils  in  1865)  influenced  the  jute-manufactories;  the  school  at  Paisley  (exist- 
ing since  1848,  and  attended  by  1,063  pupils  in  1865)  is  of  great  use  to  the  man- 
ufacture of  shawls;  the  one  at  Nottingham  (established  1843)  has  raised  the 
manufacture  of  lace  by  the  introduction  of  better  taste  in  the  designs;  the 
woollen  manufactures  are  measurably  benefited,  in  designs  as  well  as  in  dye- 
ing, by  the  Art  Schools  at  Leeds,  Huddersfield,  Stroud,  and  Trowbridge  (with 
together  nearly  8,000  pupils  in  1865);  the  Art  School  at  Bradford  (established 
1865)  contributes  to  the  improvement  of  taste  in  the  mamifacture  of  worsted 
goods;  the  Art  Schools  at  Durham,  Glasgow,  Halifax,  and  Kidderminster 
exercised  the  most  beneficial  influence  upon  the  manufacture  of  carpets,  in 
design  as  well  as  in  color;  the  cutlery  of  Sheffield  owes  its  beauty  of  form  and 


124  ART  EDUCATION. 

of  execution  to  the  Art  School  which  has  been  in  existence  there  since  1843.  In 
a  like  manner  the  education  and  the  improvement  in  the  taste  of  the  working 
men  in  other  departments  of  industry,  has  been  brought  about  by  these  schools, 
which  are  scattered  all  over  the  country,  and  are  to  be  found  in  all  the  larger 
manufacturing  cities  and  centres  of  industry;  this  is  true  of  the  progress  in 
cotton  manufactures ;  the  improvements  in  the  forms  of  glassware,  especially 
of  that  for  e very-day  use;  the  better  design  and  more  skilful  execution  of 
higher-class  goods  in  porcelain,  china,  and  earthenware;  the  refinement  of 
style  in  English  iron-wares,  &c.  The  practice  of  sending  art  objects  and 
standard  examples  from  the  Kensington  Museum  to  all  parts  of  the  country, 
enables  many  working-men,  to  whom  a  journey  to  London  would  be  utterly 
impossible,  to  see  good  models,  by  setting  these  models  down  before  their  own 
doors,  as  it  were. 

"  The  exhibition  made  in  Class  90  by  the  Science  and  Art  Department  of  the 
Kensington  Museum  afforded  sufficient  proof  for  the  truth  of  the  statement 
just  made  in  regard  to  the  influence  of  the  '  Schools  of  Art.'  Exquisite  free- 
hand drawings  from  all  sorts  of  objects,  water-colors,  geometrical  and  archi- 
tectujal  drawings,  colored  photographs  from  art  objects  in  the  Museum  (to  be 
used  as  patterns  and  as  copies),  works  of  sculpture,  statues,  &c.,  showed  the 
colossal  progress  made  by  England  within  the  last  ten  years,  in  this  branch  of 
industrial  instruction,  which  may  indeed  be  called  the  most  important." 

The  following  is  from  the  "  Report  on  Instruction  in  Drawing,"  by  Prof.  R. 
Niemtschik,  of  the  St.  L.  Technical  High  School  at  Graz  (Austrian  Report 
of  1867,  vol.  vi.  part  xi.  pp.  308,  309):— 

"  A  cursory  glance  at  the  drawings  exhibited  by  the  Science  and  Art  Depart- 
ment, South  Kensington,  London,  was  sufficient  to  convince  the  observer,  that 
they  came  from  an  institution  which  deserves  the  name  of  an  Art  Industrial 
School  in  the  best  and  fullest  acceptation  of  the  word.  This  opinion  was  up- 
held by  the  examples  and  copies,  as  well  as  by  the  work  of  the  pupils.  The 
examples  and  copies  had  been  selected  with  rare  knowledge,  and  comprised 
every  thing  that  can  be  of  service  to  the  pupils  in  all  the  various  departments; 
they  are  not  only  perfectly  well  fitted  to  awaken  the  feeling  of  the  pupils  for 
beauty  of  form  and  color,  to  raise  them  above  the  common  level,  and  to  pre- 
serve the  artistic  element  in  the  industries,  in  spite  of  wholesale  production  by 
machinery;  but  they  will  also  teach  the  growing  artist  that  moderation  is  an 
essential  requisite  for  the  attainment  of  ethical  truth  and  absolute  beauty  in 
art-industrial  production,  and  that  it  is  imperatively  necessary  to  avoid  so- 
called  artistic  effects,  if  solidity  is  to  be  attained.  No  trace  of  such  perverse- 
ness  is  to  be  found  in  the  copies :  they  are  conceived  and  executed  in  a  purely 
artistic  spirit.  This  is  undoubtedly  the  most  natural  way  to  diffuse  artistic 
elements  among  the  people,  as  well  as  to  make  artists  of  those  engaged  in 
industrial  pursuits." 

The  following  list  of  the  names  of  the  places  where  the  English  Art  Schools 
subordinate  to  the  South  Kensington  Museum  are  located  is  taken  from  the 
Report  of  the  Science  and  Art  Department.  The  list  also  shows  the  population 
of  each  place  in  1871,  and  the  number  of  students  attending  each  school  for 
the  year  ending  July  1,  1872.  Totals:  122  schools,  with  22,845  students.— 
(Tran&l) 


ENGLAND. 


125 


POPULATION. 

STUDENTS. 

POPULATION. 

STUDENTS. 

Aberdeen, 

88,125 

198 

Kidderminster,            20,803 

134 

Andover, 

5,501 

81 

Kilmarnock,                  21,073 

138 

Bath, 

52,528 

191 

Lancaster,                     17,350 

341 

Belfast, 

174,394 

430 

Leamington,                 22,730 

144 

Birkenhead, 

65,980 

192 

Leeds,                          259,201 

Birmingham, 

343,696 

1,126 

at  Cookridge  Street, 

597 

Boston, 

15,576 

95 

at  9  South  Parade, 

114 

Bradford, 

145,827 

169 

Leicester,                      95,084 

201 

Bradford  High  School, 

140 

Leith,                              42,000 

58 

Bridport, 

7,666 

94 

Lewes,                           10,735 

79 

Brighton, 

103,760 

153 

Limerick,                      39,828 

122 

Bristol, 

182,524 

431 

Lincoln,                         27,000 

294 

Bromsgrove, 

11,795 

65 

Liverpool,                    473,346 

Burslem, 

45,000 

164 

in  North  District, 

680 

Cambridge, 

30,074 

152 

in  South  District, 

615 

Cardiff, 

70,000 

217 

Macclesfield,                 35,571 

153 

Carlisle, 

31,074 

162 

Manchester,                 383,843 

Carnarvon, 

9,370 

205 

in  Bond  Street, 

502 

Cheltenham, 

41,923 

326 

at  Long  Millgate, 

507 

Chester, 

35,232 

377 

Metropolis(London),3,251,804 

Cirencester, 

7,073 

97 

at  Bloomsbury  School, 

197 

Clonmel, 

10,508 

56 

at  Lambeth, 

279 

Coalbrookdale, 

15,662 

88 

at  North  London, 

162 

Coleford, 

2,985 

57 

at  Rotherhithe, 

24 

Cork, 

81,000 

204 

at  St.  Martin's, 

117 

Coventry, 

41,647 

268 

at  Charter  House, 

131 

Croydon, 

70,000 

199 

at  Spitalftelds, 

111 

Darlington, 

40,812 

250 

at  West  London, 

494 

Derby  and  Duffield, 

61,358 

312 

at  Westminster, 

337 

Devizes, 

6,848 

61 

Monmouth,                      6,000 

44 

Dorchester, 

6,915 

82 

Newcastle  (Stafford- 

Dover, 

28,506 

139 

shire),                     15,049 

64 

Dublin, 

245,722 

Newcastle-on-Tyne,  130,915 

394 

at  Queen's  Institute, 

162 

Northampton,               44,871 

'   ,     7T 

at  Royal  Dublin  Society's  House,  483 

Norwich,                        75,000 

151 

Dudley, 

43,765 

109 

Nottingham,                 86,929 

498 

Dundee, 

120,718 

414 

Oxford,                           34,514 

218 

Durham, 

14,888 

140 

Paisley,                          48,257 

105 

Edinburgh, 

196,500 

Penzance,                      10,406 

180 

at  Male  School, 

420 

Perth,                            26,377 

150 

at  Female  School 

200 

Portsmouth  and 

Exeter, 

40,000 

241 

Gosport,                112,000 

235 

Farnham, 

12,000 

80 

Preston,                          85,428 

178 

Frome, 

12,500 

136 

Reading,                        32,313 

149 

Glasgow, 

490,000 

1,354 

Ryde,                               12,576 

137 

Gloucester, 

31,804 

132 

Salisbury,                      12,711 

183 

Halifax, 

60,000 

215 

Saltaire,                           4,284 

130 

Hanley, 

40,000 

214 

Sheffield,                      239,947 

271 

Hanley-on-Thames, 

5,600 

29 

Shrewsbury,                  23,300 

137 

Hull, 

123,111 

308 

Southampton,               53,747 

126 

Inverness, 

12,499 

115 

Sterling,                          14,276 

176 

Ipswich, 

43,136 

335 

Stoke-on-Trent,           14,008 

130 

Keighley, 

24,704 

123 

Stourbridge,                  24,968 

167 

Kendal, 

13,442 

84 

Stroud,                             9,963 

120 

126 


ART  EDUCATION. 


POPULATION.  STUDENTS. 


POPULATION.  STUDENTS. 


Sunderland, 

98,000 

134 

Warminster, 

6,500 

44 

Swansea, 

67,374 

152 

Warrington, 

33,053 

349 

Taunton, 

16,000 

209 

Winchester, 

17,000 

118 

Torquay, 

21,000 

140 

Wolverhampton, 

74,000 

179 

Trowbridge, 

11,487 

60 

Worcester, 

40,000 

163 

Truro, 

12,000 

74 

Great  Yarmouth, 

40,526 

819 

Wakefteld, 

28,079 

133 

York, 

45,000 

152 

Walsall, 

45,000 

61 

RUSSIA. 

RUSSIAN  industry  is  also  undergoing  a  revolution  in  the  matter 
of  form.  The  most  varied  elements  are,  indeed,  still  crossing  each 
other  in  Russia,  so  that  the  total  impression  received  from  a  sur- 
vey of  the  industries  of  this  country,  in  their  present  condition,  is 
far  from  being  harmonious ;  but  upon  closer  investigation  it  will 
be  perceived  that  a  separation  of  the  styles  is  gradually  taking 
place,  and  that  well-defined  principles  are  beginning  to  assert 
themselves.  Those  who,  at  the  last  Paris  Exhibition,  were  in- 
clined to  doubt  the  possibility  of  again  reviving  the  old  Slavonic 
ornamentation,  and  of  introducing  it  into  art-industry,  were  proba- 
bly compelled  to  admit,  in  view  of  the  work  of  the  Russian  gold- 
smiths and  weavers  exhibited  at  Vienna,  that  this  style  is  not  only 
still  full  of  vitality,  but  that,  under  the  fostering  care  of  art- 
science,  a  great  future  even  is  in  store  for  it.  The  efforts  so  far 
made,  principally  at  Moscow  and  at  St.  Petersburg,  to  reinstate 
the  national  forms  which  were  displaced  by  French  influence,  have 
been  decidedly  successful. 

We  will  not  investigate  how  much  of  Ityzantine  and  of  Greek 
art  there  may  be  in  this  Russian  national  style,  as  that  is  a  ques- 
tion which  is  of  small  interest,  even  to  the  Russians  themselves. 
Whatever  was  peculiar  in  industry  to  the  Slavonians  of  four  hun- 
dred or  five  hundred  years  ago  is  applied  to  modern  industry  ;  and, 
being  original,  it  interests,  and  is  sure  of  the  applause  of  the 
public.  By  the  efforts  of  science  in  the  resuscitation  of  this  style,  it 
has  gained  a  strong  hold  already,  especially  upon  jewelry.  But  it 
does  not  contain  elements  sufficiently  capable  of  development  to 
make  it  likely  that  it  will  find  its  way  into  all  parts  of  the  world. 
It  will  therefore  remain  Russian  ;  and,  when  the  foreign  elements 
(mostly  antiquated  French  forms)  shall  have  been  completely  done 

127 


128  ART  EDUCATION. 

away  with  in  Russia,  the  industry  of  the  country  will  again  bear  a 
national  character,  and  will  be  sought  after  and  valued  for  its 
originality.  The  Exhibition  very  interestingly  illustrated  the 
efforts  which  are  now  being  made  in  Russia ;  and  it  was  to  be 
regretted,  that  in  this  case,  as  in  so  many  others,  the  dismember- 
ment already  complained  of  prevented  the  possibility  of  a  simul- 
taneous view  of  the  whole  field.  The  various  parts  of  the  picture 
which  should  have  unrolled  itself  systematically  before  the  eyes  of 
the  visitor,  could  only  be  seen  by  laboriously  searching  for  them  at 
points  far  distant  from  each  other.  The  "  Society  for  the  Encour- 
agement of  the  Arts,"  at  St.  Petersburg,  for  instance,  exhibited  in 
the  main  gallery ;  the  Museum  of  Art  and  Industry,  together  with 
the  Drawing-School  "  Stroganoff  "  connected  with  it,  had  its  place 
partly  in  the  Northern  pavilion  of  the  "Amateurs,"  partly  in 
the  Northern  transept  of  the  Industrial  Palace ;  while  the 
most  interesting  productions  of  industry  were  allotted  to  the  inter- 
national market  in  the  Rotunda.  It  is  not  impossible,  therefore, 
that  some  important  features  may  have  been  overlooked,  in  spite 
of  conscientious  research. 

We  will  first  look  at  the  Art-School  "  Stroganoff,  "  at  Moscow, 
as  it  was  best  represented  at  the  Exhibition,  and  gave  a  very 
good  presentation  of  the  various  phases  of  its  activity. 

The  systematic  course  of  instruction  of  the  preparatory  and 
the  special  classes  was  shown  in  numerous  portfolios,  and  by 
large  tableaux  on  the  walls.  Besides  these  works,  to  which 
we  shall  recur  later,  the  manuals  and  copies  published  by  the 
institution  for  the  purposes  of  instruction  were  also  on  exhibition. 
The  copies  proceed  according  to  the  usual  course  of  instruction  up 
to  shaded  ornaments  ;  but  the  style  of  the  ornaments  used  is  princi- 
pally Byzantine  and  old  Russian.  There  were  also  shown  suitable 
aids  for  teaching  in  linear  drawing.  For  the  further  improvement 
of  the  pupils,  provision  is  made  in  the  rich  collections  of  the  Indus- 
trial Museum,  which  was  opened  in  1868,  and  which  is  especially 
devoted  to  the  development  of  the  school  in  the  direction  of 
national  art.  The  aim  of  the  institution  may  be  more  particularly 
detailed  as  follows :  to  provide  skilled  artisans  for  the  art-indus- 
tries, to  emancipate  industry  from  slavish  imitation,  and  to  edu- 
cate it  to  originality.  The  most  important  influence  upon  these 


RUSSIA.  129 

efforts  is  exercised  by  the  Museum,  to  whose  exhibition  a  whole 
hall  in  the  Northern  pavilion  of  the  Art-Hall  had  been 
devoted.  In  this  exhibition  there  were  to  be  seen  (in  selections) 
the  models  of  ornaments,  in  plaster,  clay,  and  electrotype,  col- 
lected from  the  national  monuments  ;  facsimiles  of  old  works  of 
art,  vessels,  and  other  utensils ;  photographs ;  drawings  from 
works  of  art,  by  which  the  Museum  and  the  School  mutually  assist 
each  other ;  and  the  publications  issued  by  the  institution.  The 
exceedingly  interesting  "  Stroganoff  picture-book"  (published 
1869),  which  was  issued  for  the  purpose  of  showing  the  pictorial 
types  introduced  into  Russia  with  the  orthodox  religion  in  the 
twelfth  century,  was  displayed  on  the  upper  portion  of  the  walls. 
As  the  principal  achievement  of  the  Museum  of  the  Stroganoff 
school,  we  must,  however,  mention  the  publication  of  "The  His- 
tory of  Russian  Ornament,"  drawn  from  authentic  manuscripts1 
of  the  tenth  to  the  fifteenth  centuries.  The  plates  were  carefully 
executed  in  color-printing,  from  the  originals,  in  Paris ;  and  this 
work  may  be  said  to  supply  the  basis  of  the  reforms  which  are 
at  present  aimed  at  in  Russian  industry.  A  special  effort  has  also 
been  made  to  purify  the  taste  of  the  people  by  improving  the  style 
of  the  pictures  of  saints,  so  universal  and  so  popular  in  Russia. 
This  branch  of  art  is  to  be  led  back  to  the  gracefulness  of  the  old 
Greek  types,  which  were  formerly  peculiar  to  it,  but  which  were 
lost  by  the  introduction  of  foreign  elements. 

A  considerable  number  of  industrial  artists  and  draughtsmen  leave 
the  school  annually,  and  impart  its  tendencies  to  the  industries  ;  but, 
besides  these  artists,  the  institution  also  educates  the  drawing- 
teachers  for  other  institutions  (in  the  provincial  towns),  which 
follow  similar  aims.  Instigated  by  the  Stroganoff  school,  drawing, 
especially  in  Moscow,  has  made  very  satisfactory  advances  since 
1867.  The  subject  has  not  only  been  introduced  into  the  Elemen- 
tary and  Real  Schools  as  a  compulsory  study,  but  ten  Sunday  schools 
for  persons  engaged  in  industrial  pursuits  have  also  been  organ- 
ized, and  at  the  University  a  special  drawing  course  has  been 
opened  for  the  students,  not  to  speak  of  the  Drawing-Schools  which 
many  manufacturers  have  established  for  the  benefit  of  their  own 

i  Mostly  Greek  and  Slavonian. 
9 


130  ART  EDUCATION. 

workmen.  It  is  to  be  expected  that  the  other  manufacturing  cities 
will  follow  this  example. 

Turning  now  to  a  closer  inspection  of  the  work  of  the  pupils, 
we  may  premise,  that  the  drawings  throughout  were  animated  by  a 
fresh  artistic  spirit,  and  that  in  the  preparatory  classes,  where  draw- 
ing is  taught  in  the  proper  sense  of  the  word,  the  course  of  instruc- 
tion is  quite  correct.  We  were  unable  to  comprehend,  however, 
why,  in  view  of  the  pronounced  tendencies  of  the  school,  copies 
from  old  French  ornaments  in  crayon  should  still  occur  here  and 
there,  as  the  style  of  these  ornaments  is  diametrically  opposed  to  the 
square,  exact  character  of  the  flat  Russian  models.  But  it  must 
be  remarked,  that  the  works  published  by  the  Museum  offer  noth- 
ing very  striking  in  the  way  of  examples  for  the  study  of  execution  ; 
and  it  may  be,  therefore,  that  the  French  examples  are  simply 
used  as  models  of  treatment.  The  drawings  of  the  higher  classes, 
from  Byzantine  and  old  Russian  models,  were  exceedingly  good. 
The  decorative  studies  (in  body  colors)  were  treated  with  great 
technical  skill ;  the  style  exhibited  a  tolerably  free  application  of 
Russian  national  elements.  But  the  strength  of  the  school  was 
shown  in  the  drawings  of  vessels,  ecclesiastical  utensils,  frames, 
&c.,  for  execution  in  precious  metals,  which  is  quite  natural,  con- 
sidering that  Moscow  is  the  principal  seat  of  the  goldsmiths.  In 
the  drawings  of  furniture,  the  ground-forms  (quite  correctly,  by  the 
way)  adhere  to  the  modern  German  and  French  fashions,  while 
the  preciseness  of  the  national  style  appears  only  in  the  orna- 
mentation. The  very  beautiful  calligraphic  specimens  also  deserve 
to  be  mentioned.  Designing  for  textile  fabrics  is  likewise  prac- 
ticed very  thoroughly,  but  it  leaves  much  to  be  desired  in  regard  to 
harmony  of  colors.  In  this  branch  French  flowers  were  again 
to  be  met  with  in  the  designs. 

Geometrical  drawing  is  practiced  very  thoroughly  in  the  ele- 
mentary courses,  and  projections  and  perspective  are  also  treated 
very  comprehensively ;  these  subjects  are  succeeded  by  the  special 
courses  of  architecture  and  machine-building,  in  both  of  which 
branches  very  good  specimens  were  submitted.  The  verdict  on 
figure-drawing  must  be  less  favorable ;  Julien's  examples  are 
copied  in  crayon  on  white  paper,  and  too  much  value  is  attached 
to  shading.  The  drawings  from  casts  were  treated  too  much  like 


RUSSIA.  131 

lithographs  ;  the  academical  studies  exhibited  a  want  of  thorough 
understanding  of  the  forms.  It  is  true,  undoubtedly,  that  Russian 
ornament  does  not  make  use  of  the  figure,  and  receives  its  life  from 
color  alone ;  but  an  art-school,  even  though  it  may  be  called  upon 
to  cultivate  the  ornament  more  particularly,  must  not  disregard 
figure-drawing;  the  study  of  the  human  figure  is  of  the  utmost 
advantage  to  the  freedom  and  the  refinement  of  form. 

The  "  Society  for  the  Encouragement  of  the  Arts,"  at  St. 
Petersburg,  follows  very  nearly  the  same  aims.  It  exhibited  only 
drawings  from  the  composition  class  of  its  Industrial  School,  which 
deserve  to  be  designated  as  superior.  Most  of  them  were  vessels 
and  ecclesiastical  utensils  in  gold  and  enamel,  book-covers,  pro- 
fane and  ecclesiastical  works  in  wood,  &c.,  principally  Byzantine 
in  style.  The  Museum  of  the  society  also  exhibited  an  interesting 
collection  of  enamelled  plates  of  the  fourteenth  and  fifteenth  centu- 
ries, as  examples  for  the  pupils,  as  well  as  a  collection  of  national 
dresses,  and  other  domestic  objects,  illustrative  of  the  industry  of 
the  Russian  people.  The  "  National  Ornaments  "  published  by 
the  institution  have  reference  mostly  to  textile  art,  and  follow  the 
general  reformatory  tendencies  now  prevailing  in  Russia. 

Besides  these  schools  of  an  especial  art-industrial  character,  the 
Technological  Institutes  of  St.  Petersburg  and  of  Moscow  were 
also  represented  at  the  Exhibition  by  aids  for  teaching  for  practical 
technical  education. 

In  both  of  these  institutes  particular  attention  is  paid  not  only 
to  the  theory,  but  also  to  the  practical  exercise,  of  the  various 
trades  ;  and  the  Technical  School  at  Moscow  more  especially  is  so 
organized,  that  its  pupils  can  be  educated  in  the  workshop  in  all 
the  branches  of  machine-building  and  mechanics.  This  institu- 
tion is  divided  into  two  sections ;  the  first,  a  general  scientific 
section,  the  other,  a  special  section  for  the  different  branches,  each 
with  a  course  of  three  years.  The  aids  for  teaching,  shown  at  the 
Exhibition,  had  reference  only  to  practical  instruction  in  the  work- 
shop, which  is  given  quite  systematically,  in  turning,  joinery, 
metal-turning,  locksmithing,  &c.  The  character  of  the  school, 
however,  is  not  identical  with  that  of  the  French  Intermediate 
Technical  Schools  (at  Chalons,  Aix,  Angers,  &c.),  which  train 
only  technically  educated  foremen ;  it  is  simply  a  High  School,  in 


132  ART  EDUCATION. 

which  the  theoretical  department  is  equal  to  the  same  department 
in  other  European  High  Schools,  the  practical  instruction  being 
added  only  to  complement  the  theoretical  knowledge.  For  this 
purpose  the  institution  is  connected  with  a  machine-shop,  employ- 
ing paid  day-laborers,  in  which  orders  for  steam-engines,  pumps, 
and  other  agricultural  machinery  are  executed.1 

Unfortunately,  for  want  of  space,  only  fragments  of  the  various 
categories  of  aids  for  teaching  could  be  exhibited ;  which  was  to  be 
regretted,  as  the  incompleteness  of  the  Exhibition  made  it  impossi- 
ble to  gain  a  full  and  clear  comprehension  of  the  pedagogical  bear- 
ings of  this  feature  of  the  school.  According  to  the  arrangement 
adopted,  the  aids  for  teaching  for  the  different  branches  are  divided 
into  three  groups  :  the  first  comprising  those  tools  with  which  the 
apprentice  is  to  make  himself  familiar  before  he  commences  to 
work,  and  the  use  of  which  is  to  be  $hown  to  him  while  working ; 
the  second  category  embracing  a  collection  of  models,  intended  to 
teach,  systematically  and  progressively,  the  various  knacks  which 
must  be  learned  in  each  special  branch ;  the  last  group,  finally, 
being  formed  of  objects,  or  parts  of  objects,  in  the  production  of 
which  all  the  various  manipulations  occur,  which  were  practiced 
in  the  previous  courses.2 

Suffice  it  to  remark  here,  that  these  excellent  collections  were 
most  favorably  criticised  by  the  specialists  at  the  Exhibition,  ancl 
that  the  school,  during  the  four  years  of  its  existence,  has  worked 
with  splendid  success  in  accordance  with  the  system  just  sketched. 
The  arrangement  of  the  Exhibition  was  exemplary ;  and  the  director 
of  the  institution,  M.  Victor  Delia- Voss,  was  present  to  give  any 
further  information  that  might  be  demanded. 

The  Polytechnical  School  of  St.  Petersburg  ranks  as  a  High 
school  since  1864;  and  practical  execution  is  also  taught  quite 
extensively  in  this  institution,  with  only  this  difference,  that  more 
play  has  been  given  to  the  chemical  faculty.  Only  standard 
models  for  machine-building,  executed  with  mathematical  precis- 

1  The  shop  produces  machines  to  the  yearly  value  of  one  hundred  thousand 
florins.    Some  of  its  productions  were  exhibited  in  the  Machine  Hall. 

2  A  detailed  list  of  the  tools,  &c.,  exhibited  by  the  Moscow  Technical 
School  may  be  found  in  the  original  report  by  Prof.  Langl.    The  list  has  been 
omitted  here,  as  it  does  not  bear  directly  upon  the  subject  of  art-education.  — 
Transl. 


RUSSIA.  133 

ion,  and  a  number  of  excellent  machine-drawings  by  the  pupils, 
had  been  sent  to  the  Exhibition  by  this  school. 

Finland  appeared  quite  independently  in  Group  XXVI.  with 
drawings  by  pupils,  as  well  as  with  aids  for  teaching.  Whoever 
followed  the  efforts  made  in  behalf  of  education  in  this  Northern 
province,  as  they  were  sketched  in  the  short  notices  of  the  country 
and  of  the  objects  sent  by  it,  contained  in  the  little  pamphlet 
which  had  been  provided,  must  have  felt  himself  strongly  attracted 
towards  the  specimens  on  exhibition. 

The  country  is  comparatively  poor,  and  its  industry  is  still  in  a 
low  state  of  development ;  navigation  and  agriculture  are  still  the 
main  sources  of  income  for  its  inhabitants ;  nevertheless  educa- 
tional affairs  have  looked  up  most  satisfactorily  during  the  last  ten 
years,  and  are  rapidly  progressing,  especially  since  they  have 
passed  from  under  the  control  of  the  church  (1867).  More  atten- 
tion has  also  been  paid  to  drawing,  since  the  creation  of  the 
"  Direction  of  Manufactures,"  a  special  board  whose  duty  it  is 
to  look  to  the  elevation  of  the  industries.  Sunday  and  Evening 
Schools  for  the  practice  of  drawing  have  been  opened  in  all  of  the 
more  important  places ;  and  the  higher  artistic  training  of  work- 
ing-men is  provided  for  by  the  Industrial  School  at  Helsingfors. 
In  most  of  the  People's  Schools  drawing  is  also  practiced ;  and 
specimens  from  the  Normal  School,  and  from  the  Teachers'  Semi- 
nary at  Jyvaskyla,  were  on  exhibition.  The  results  were  modest, 
but  gave  evidence  of  a  good  method.  The  copies  for  elementary 
instruction,  by  G.  A.  Hippinsen,  are,  however,  too  small,  a  fault 
which  was  also  to  be  censured  in  the  drawings  by  the  pupils. 
But  on  the  whole  it  was  apparent  that  this  people  has  a  talent 
for  form,  and  that  it  will  only  need  good  teachers  to  educate  its 
artistic  feeling. 


SWITZERLAND. 

THE  Educational  Exhibition  of  Switzerland  was  held  in  the 
upper  story  of  the  elegant  "Chalet  Suisse,"  which  had  been 
erected  as  a  special  object  of  exhibition  between  the  third  and 
fourth  transepts  of  the  Industrial  Palace.  For  the  most  part, 
however,  it  consisted  only  of  the  aids  for  teaching  in  use  in  the 
Swiss  schools,  the  representation  of  the  methods  of  instruction, 
statistical  reports,  &c.  Specimens  by  the  pupils  had  been  sent 
only  by  the  Special  School  of  Art-Industry  of  the  City  of  Geneva. 
An  insight  into  the  state  of  drawing  and  of  art-education  was 
nevertheless  to  be  obtained  by  an  inspection  of  the  educational 
material,  and  of  the  industrial  products  of  the  country,  as  shown 
at  the  Exhibition.  But  the  survey  was  made  somewhat  difficult  by 
the  separation  of  the  various  cantons,  each  of  which,  in  conse- 
quence of  its  local  conditions  and  the  character  of  its  inhabitants, 
has  its  own  constitution,  and  its  peculiar  arrangements  in  regard 
to  education. 

In  spite  of  these  diversities,  a  certain  unity  prevails  in  the 
instruction  in  drawing ;  and  it  is  practiced  everywhere,  even  in  the 
infant-classes.  In  the  Elementary  Schools  (consisting  mostly  of 
three  classes),  geometr}7  has  also  been  introduced,  and  this  subject 
is  continued  in  the  Secondary  Schools.  In  the  Industrial  Schools, 
which  are  almost  identical  with  the  (former)  Austrian  Lower 
Real-Schools,  and  which  are  divided  into  commercial  and  tech- 
nical sections,  drawing  receives  careful  attention,  especially  in  the 
technical  sections  ;  it  is  also  practiced  in  the  institutions  for  train- 
ing teachers,  and  the  candidates  must  pass  an  examination  in  the 
subject. 

Owing  to  the  character  of  its  soil,  Switzerland  is  constrained  to 
look  to  industry  more  than  any  other  country.  The  want  of  raw 
134  • 


8  WITZERLAND.  135 

produce  soon  led  its  inhabitants  to  cultivate  those  trades  which 
border  upon  art-industry ;  and  certain  branches  have  been  carried 
to  such  perfection,  that  they  have  given  rise  to  extended  exporta- 
tion. Swiss  wood-carvings,  watches,  textile  fabrics,  braids,  &c., 
are  celebrated  all  over  the  world,  and  bring  millions  into  the 
country  ever}'  year.  But  in  spite  of  continuous  intercourse  with 
foreign  countries,  and  of  numerous  drawing-schools  for  the  eleva- 
tion of  the  artistic  element  in  the  industries,  little  progress  (as  far 
as  taste  is  concerned)  is  to  be  observed  in  the  productions  of  the 
country.  Old  traditions  are  adhered  to  in  all  branches  of  indus- 
try, and  the  schools  are  simply  used  for  the  diffusion  of  inherited 
technical  skill.  The  Swiss  wood-carvings  are  still  given  to  pure 
naturalism,  without  regard  to  the  requirements  of  the  object ;  and, 
even  in  the  more  important  schools  and  work-shops  of  this  branch 
of  industry,  no  profounder  comprehension  of  art  has  found  en- 
trance as  yet. 

In  Meiringen,  Interlachen,  Brienz,  and  other  places,  for  in- 
stance, casts  from  nature  are  alone  used  for  study,  and  plant- 
forms  play  the  principal  part  everywhere.  Bofingen,  of  Inter- 
lachen, exhibited  a  series  of  such  models,  which,  in  arrangement 
and  technical  execution,  were  the  best  of  all  of  their  kind  to  be 
seen  at  the  Exhibition.  Flowers  with  perforated  stems,  and  with 
leaves  that  were  hollow  underneath,  often  of  an  arrangement 
that  appeared  to  have  been  complicated  on  purpose,  had  been 
transferred  into  plaster  with  the  utmost  truth.  These  models 
might  be  recommended  more  especially  to  the  German  schools,  as 
the  latter  are  frequently  bound  up  too  rigidly  by  style,  so  that  the 
forms  are  wanting  in  healthy  freedom.  Among  the  works  of 
Althans,  Moor  (Meiringen),  J.  Grossmann  (Ringgenberg) ,  Fliick, 
Stahli,  Roetter  (Brienz),  &c.,  on  the  ground-floor  of  the  Swiss 
Chalet,  there  were  to  be  found  plants,  leafage,  branch-work,  and 
the  like  (besides  graceful  mannered  animals),  of  the  most  perfect 
technical  execution,  but  without  any  solid  nucleus.  The  Swiss 
need  a  "  Frullini,"  1  to  turn  their  skill  to  better  account  in  more 
refined  and  more  artistic  productions. 

Watchmaking,  which  has  its  seat  in  the  South- West,  in  the  Jura 

1  Lodovico  Frullini  of  Florence,  a  wood-carver,  whose  frames,  panels,  &c., 
executed  in  the  Renaissance  style,  were  greatly  admired  at  the  Vienna  World's 
Fair,  as  well  as  at  previous  exhibitions.— IYa/wZ. 


136  ART  EDUCATION. 

of  Neufchatel  and  principally  in  Geneva,  likewise  shows  no 
changes  as  regards  artistic  embellishment.  French  taste  is  still 
prevalent ;  only  here  and  there,  in  Borrnet's,  Delesnaux's,  and 
Chautre's  watches  for  instance,  a  better  style  is  to  be  seen,  ap- 
proaching nearer  to  the  smooth,  insipid  English,  however,  than  to 
the  German  or  Italian  style.  The  same  is  true  of  jewelry ;  but  pos- 
sibty  a  change  in  taste  will  set  in  earlier  in  this  department  than  in 
any  other,  and  very  likely  through  the  influence  of  England,  as  Eng- 
land has  made  considerable  progress  in  the  reform  of  this  branch 
of  industry.  The  Special  School  of  Art-Industry  at  Geneva,  above 
alluded  to,  is  also  endeavoring  to  aid  the  refinement  of  form. 
The  drawings  exhibited,  mostly  jewelry,  were  brilliant  in  execu- 
tion, and  gave  evidence  of  the  best  intentions  in  the  choice  of 
motives.  Besides  copies  from  later  French  works  ("  L'Art  pour 
Tous,"  &c.)  there  were  also  to  be  found  studies  in  all  styles, 
plant-forms  converted  into  ornament;  methods,  in  short,  which 
give  an  assurance  of  progress. 

In  silks  French  forms  were  found  almost  throughout,  while  in 
the  cotton  and  linen  fabrics  the  peculiar  forms  recalling  the 
Orient,  which  have  been  in  use  for  so  long  a  time,  are  still  pre- 
served. 

As  long  as  art  proper  does  not  find  better  care  in  Switzerland, 
it  cannot  be  expected  that  the  forms  used  in  industry  will  be 
refined  to  any  important  extent.  First  of  all,  there  is  still  want- 
ing a  common  centre  for  art,  an  academy  in  the  country  itself,  to 
give  a  stable  foundation  to  national  art.  The  general  government 
expends  only  two  thousand  francs  a  year  on  historical  art ;  the 
cantonal  governments  and  the  several  communes  likewise  do  but 
little  for  it.  It  is  therefore  not  to  be  wondered  at,  that  most  of  the 
Swiss  artists  emigrate  to  Germany,  France,  and  Italy. 

Switzerland  has  museums  in  nearly  all  the  more  prominent 
cities,  some  of  them,  as  for  instance  those  in  Basle,  Winterthur, 
and  St.  Gallen,  of  considerable  importance.  But,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  the  archaeological  collection  at  Zurich,  their  arrangements 
are  such  that  they  are  but  little  suited  to  advance  the  art-education 
of  the  country. 

Great  activity  is,  however,  shown  by  the  various  art  associa- 
tions and  societies  of  artists  in  Aargau,  Bern,  Basle,  Freiburg, 


SWITZERLAND.  137 

Geneva,  St.  Gallen,  Lucerne,  Schaffhausen,  Solothurn,  Winterthur, 
and  Zurich.  Exhibitions  are  frequently  held ;  collections  of 
paintings  have  been  begun,  the  more  important  works  on  art  are 
purchased,  &c.,  for  the  purpose  of  awakening  a  feeling  for  art  in 
the  people. 

Of  the  aids  for  teaching  exhibited  by  the  various  cantons,  the 
following  must  be  specially  noticed :  — 

Canton  Aargau.  —  u  Copies  for  Stigmographic  Drawing  "  by  A. 
Burri,  also  "  Copies  for  Geometrical  Object  Drawing ;  "  the  latter 
autographed,  and  accompanied  by  explanations  for  the  pupils. 

Canton  Bdle-Campagne.  —  "Copies  for  Freehand  Drawing," 
by  A.  Hutter  (teacher  of  technical  drawing  at  the  Cantonal  School 
at  Bern,  and  at  the  Seminary  at  Miinchen-Buchsee) .  These  copies 
begin  with  geometrical  figures,  and  progress  to  plant-forms.  In 
linear  drawing  they  embrace  geometrical  construction,  projections, 
and  perspective. 

Canton  St.  Gallen.  —  "  Models  for  Elementary  Class-Instruc- 
tion in  Freehand  Drawing,"  by  G.  Bion;  various  geometrical 
forms  cut  from  colored  cardboard,  to  be  attached  to  the  black- 
board in  combinations. 

Canton  Turgau.  —  "Copies  for  Technical  Drawing"  for  In- 
dustrial Improvement  Schools,  by  J.  H.  Kronauer,  professor  in 
Zurich ;  geometrical  principles  followed  by  mechanical  and 
architectural  examples  ;  thirty  plates  of  very  beautiful  execution. 
By  the  same  author,  "  Elements  of  Geometrical  Drawing,"  for 
People's  and  Industrial  Schools.  Schoop's  "  Drawing- School  for 
People's  Schools,"  progressing  nicely  from  stigmographic  copies 
to  freehand  ornament. 

Canton  Tessin.  —  "  Corso  Parietale  d'Ornamenti,"  by  A.  Rossi ; 
large  wall-charts  in  strong,  black  outlines,  progressing  from  the 
simplest  leaf-forms  to  larger  flowers  and  ornaments,  also  animals, 
&c.,  some  what,  perplexing  in  the  course  of  instruction.  By  the 
same  author,  "  Corso  Progressive  d'Ornamenti,"  ornaments  in 
outline,  and  shaded  in  two  crayons ;  hard  in  execution.  Older 
ornamental  works,  engraved  on  copper,  by  the  same  author,  were 
also  exhibited,  but  they  left  much  to  be  desired  in  regard  to  taste. 
The  same  is  true  of  the  works  by  Prof.  Ferri  of  Lugano.  Ferri 
also  exhibited  his  engravings  of  the  charming  marble  reliefs  of 


138  ART  EDUCATION. 

the  Church  of  St.  Lorenzo  in  Lugano,  but  his  manner  of  representa- 
tion is  such  that  the  forms  appear  as  if  they  belonged  to  a  later 
century. 

Canton  Waadt.  —  "  Recueil  de  Dessin  Lineaire,"  by  Th. 
Stenilen ;  based  upon  antiquated  principles. 

Canton  Zurich.  —  "  Copies  for  Geometrical  Drawing, "  by 
Ferd.  Graberg ;  mostly  architectural  motives.  By  the  same 
author,  "  Wall-Charts  for  Elementary  Instruction  in  Freehand 
Drawing,"  forms  of  leaves,  in  which,  however,  the  peculiar 
shadows  at  the  edges  are  troublesome,  rather  than  helpful. 

There  were  furthermore  exhibited  u  Copies  for  Landscape 
Drawing,"  in  drawings  by  A.  Corrodi,  which  commended  them- 
selves by  their  attractive  motives  and  neat  execution.  The  same 
author's  pretty  "  Studies  from  Plants  for  Ornaments,"  must  also 
be  mentioned.1 

1  It  may  surprise  the  reader  to  find  no  allusion  to  the  Polytechnical 
School  of  Zurich  in  Prof.  Langl's  "Report."  This  omission  is,  however, 
explained  by  the  fact  that  the  Polytechnical  School  did  not  exhibit  at 
Vienna  (the  Official  Swiss  Catalogue,  at  least,  makes  no  mention  of  such  an 
exhibition),  and  that  Prof.  Langl's  attention  was  directed  more  especially  to 
artistic  and  art-industrial  education  than  to  purely  technical  education.  That 
the  instruction  given  at  the  institution  in  question  is  purely  technical,  employ- 
ing drawing  only  as  a  means  for  reaching  technical  ends,  becomes  apparent 
from  the  list  of  sections  into  which  the  school  is  divided:  — 

1.  The  School  of  Architecture. 

2.  The  Engineering  School. 

3.  The  Mechanical-Technical  School. 

4.  The  Chemical-Technical  School. 

6.  The  School  of  Agriculture  and  Forestry. 

6.  The  Section  for  the  Training  of  Teachers  in  Mathematics  and  Natural 
Philosophy. 

7.  The  Section  for  Philosophy  and  Political  Economy. 

8.  The  Mathematical  Preparatory  Course. 

The  great  excellence  of  the  school,  as  well  as  the  pecuniary  advantages 
derived  from  it  by  the  city  of  Zurich,  is  plainly  indicated  by  the  number  of  its 
scholars,  which,  as  will  be  seen  from  the  annexed  list,  are  attracted  to  it  from 
all  parts  of  the  world.  According  to  the  official  "Report  on  the  Organization 
and  the  Activity  of  the  Swiss  Polytechnical  School  at  Zurich,"  prepared  for  the 
Vienna  "World's  Fair,  the  number  of  scholars  attending  the  school  in  1872 
amounted  to  689,  of  which  242  only  were  natives  of  Switzerland,  while  447 
came  from  foreign  countries,  as  follows:  Germany,  42;  Hungary,  79;  Bohemia, 
14;  other  Austrian  states,  98;  Russia  and  Finland,  44;  Poland  and  Lithuania, 
50;  Italy,  50;  England,  9;  Holland,  Belgium,  and  Luxemburg,  6;  Greece  and 
the  Principalities  of  the  Danube,  18;  Sweden  and  Norway,  9;  Denmark,  5; 


SWITZERLAND.  139 

France,  13;  Turkey  and  Serbia,  3;  North  America,  4;  West  Indies,  1;  East 
Indies,  2.  Besides  these  689  regular  scholars,  there  were  also  3G1  "auditors," 
which  are  not  classified.  These  "  auditors  "  are  mostly  scholars  of  the  other 
educational  institutions  of  Zurich,  who  attend  only  certain  lectures  at  the 
Polytechnical  School. 

For  further  information  on  this  subject,  the  reader  is  referred  to  the  work  by 
Mr.  John  Scott  Russell,  previously  mentioned.    (See  note,  p.  56.)— Transl. 


THE  NETHERLANDS  AND  BELGIUM. 

THE  participation  of  the  Netherlands  in  the  educational  group 
at  Vienna,  as  at  former  World's  Fairs,  was  not  very  active.  Be- 
sides various  works  having  reference  to  the  schools,  specimens  by 
the  pupils  were  exhibited  only  by  the  "  Society  of  the  Working- 
men  "  in  Amsterdam.  A  survey  of  the  department  of  the  Peo- 
ple's and  Middle  Schools,  was,  however,  given  in  a  report,1  which 
the  government  had  caused  to  be  written  especially  for  the  Exhi- 
bition ;  and  from  this  report  the  following  data  concerning  instruc- 
tion in  drawing  have  been  extracted :  — 

According  to  the  law  of  1857,  the  elements  of  the  knowledge  of 
form  and  of  drawing  were  admitted  into  primary  instruction.  The 
first  of  these  subjects,  however,  is  not  yet  fully  understood  every- 
where, especially  where  the  schools  are  in  the  hands  of  older 
teachers.  It  has  been  of  but  little  use  wherever  it  was  treated 
as  a  sort  of  geometry,  but  without  the  rigorous  logical  demonstra- 
tion which  is  needed  by  the  latter  subject,  and  has  been  conducive 
to  improvement  only  in  those  schools  in  which  it  was  used  as  an  aid 
to  the  imaginative  faculty  of  the  pupils,  or  as  a  preparation  for 
instruction  in  drawing.  Drawing  itself  has  also  received  its  just 
treatment  in  a  few  only  of  the  public  and  private  schools ;  as  a 
general  thing  it  is  confined  to  copying  (upon  slates)  the  figures 
which  have  been  drawn  on  the  blackboard.  It  is  only  of  late  that 
some  of  the  assistant  teachers  have  received  certificates  in  this 
branch,  so  that  an  improvement  may  now  be  looked  for. 

In  the  Middle  Schools,  regulated  by  law  since  1863,  drawing 
plays  a  more  important  part,  especially  in  those  which  have  been 
destined  for  the  education  of  the  working-classes.  Formerly  there 
existed  only  Drawing-Schools  proper,  in  which  instruction  was  con- 

1  Written  by  St.  Pravi  inspector  of  Primary  Schools. 
140 


THE  NETHERLANDS  AND  BELGIUM.  141 

fined  to  freehand  and  linear  drawing,  and  so-called  Industrial 
Schools,  in  which  mathematics  and  the  natural  sciences  were  also 
taught.  According  to  later  regulations,  the  Middle  Schools  of  this 
class  are  to  provide  for  general  education  in  an  enlarged  sense, 
and  they  have  therefore  been  organized  as  Citizens'  Schools  proper 
(with  day  and  evening  courses) . 

It  was  intended  to  establish  such  schools  in  all  places  hav- 
ing more  than  ten  thousand  inhabitants,  but  it  has  been  im- 
possible so  far  to  carry  out  this  idea  to  its  full  extent.  In 
many  places  the  old  Drawing-Schools  also  remain  in  existence 
alongside  of  the  new  institutions.  The  attendance  is  continually 
growing,  especially  in  the  evening-schools ;  at  the  day-schools  it 
is  smaller.  The  pupils  are  generally  held  to  participate  in  all  the 
branches  of  study,  but  in  some  of  the  schools  they  are  permitted 
to  choose  single  subjects :  this  applies  more  especially  to  drawing 
in  the  higher  schools. 

The  number  of  Drawing-Schools  still  existing  in  1871  amounted 
to  thirty,  with  one  hundred  and  eight  teachers  and  twenty-five 
hundred  pupils.  In  twenty- two  of  these  schools,  instruction 
embraced  only  freehand  and  architectural  drawing ;  in  the  others 
mathematics,  natural  philosophy,  and  mechanics  were  likewise 
taught ;  in  three  of  them  also  modelling.  The  Royal  School  for 
the  Arts  of  Design  at  Bois-le-Duc,  the  Academy  of  the  Arts  of 
Design  at  the  Hague,  and  the  Industrial  School  organized  by  the 
Society  of  Working-men  at  Amsterdam,  are  among  the  best  of 
these  institutions. 

In  the  higher  Citizens'  Schools,  four  hours  in  each  of  the  two 
lower  classes,  two  hours  in  each  of  the  three  upper  classes,  are 
devoted  to  drawing.  At  the  graduating  examination,  the  candi- 
date must  be  able  to  draw  and  shade  an  ornament  from  a  cast, 
and  to  sketch  a  head  from  a  copy. 

This  general  outline  must  suffice  to  give  an  idea  of  the  organiza- 
tion and  the  legal  requirements  of  the  schools  in  question.  Very 
naturally  the  material  at  hand  was  not  sufficient  to  show  the  influ- 
ence exercised  by  drawing-instruction  in  the  Netherlands.  The 
Exhibition  only  made  it  apparent  that  not  a  trace  is  left  in  Dutch 
industry  of  the  period  of  its  glory  in  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth 
centuries. 


142  ART  EDUCATION. 

Not  much  of  the  modern  current  was  to  be  seen  in  the  drawings 
exhibited  by  the  School  of  the  Working-men  at  Amsterdam,  already 
alluded  to.  The  ornamental  objects  were  generally  executed 
understandingly,  French  and  German  models  having  been  used 
for  the  purpose.  Pen-drawings  from  vessels  and  decorative  mo- 
tives deserve  to  be  specially  mentioned  ;  the  figure-studies  (after 
Julien)  were  weaker.  Linear  drawing,  on  the  contrary,  was  rep- 
resented in  all  its  branches  by  very  praiseworthy  specimens,  which 
exhibited  a  practical  understanding  of  the  subject  throughout. 
The  models  of  plaster  and  of  wood  which  were  exhibited,  did  not 
rise  to  very  complicated  forms,  but  nevertheless  gave  evidence 
of  good  tendencies. 

Of  the  works  having  reference  to  drawing  and  art-education,  we 
must  mention,  "The  Little  Draughtsman"  (for  slate  exercises),  by 
J.  Groeneveld,  a  systematic  school  for  the  first  stages,  the  begin- 
ning of  which  is  good,  while  the  more  advanced  copies  go  beyond 
the  executive  ability  of  children ;  also  "Studies  from  the  Liv- 
ing Model,"  by  J.  H.  Egenberger,  in  two  crayons,  among  which 
the  outlines  are  preferable  to  the  shaded  drawings  ;  the  same  au- 
thor's "  Minerva's  Drawing  Lessons,"  copies  for  figure-drawing, 
leave  much  to  be  desired  in  point  of  execution.  Berghm's 
"  Drawing  Examples  for  School  and  House  "  are  boldly  drawn, 
but  heads  of  animals  are  out  of  place  in  such  a  work. 

In  architecture  the  excellent  works  of  the  "  Society  for  the 
Propagation  of  Architecture  at  Amsterdam  "  were  exhibited,  and 
in  engineering  the  proceedings  of  the  "  Royal  Institute  of  Engi- 
neers." Th.  M.  M.  v.  Pricken's  "  Civil  Architecture,"  very 
beautifully  gotten  up,  must  also  be  noticed  here. 

Of  the  exhibition  of  the  Asiatic  colonies  of  the  Netherlands, 
the  grand  work  on  the  monuments  of  Boro-Boudour,  in  the  island 
of  Java,  published  by  order  of  the  minister  of  the  colonies,  de- 
serves to  be  mentioned  more  especially. 

BELGIUM.  —  Belgium  was  represented  in  Group  XXVI.  almost 
as  scantily  as  the  Netherlands.  The  government  had  sent  only 
plans  and  views  of  the  more  important  school-buildings,  charts 
relating  to  educational  matters,  some  pedagogical  books,  and 
official  reports,  laws,  &c.,  these  latter  in  closed  cases.1 

1  It  was  impossible  for  the  reporter  to  gain  access  to  them. 


THE  NETHERLANDS  AND  BELGIUM.  143 

The  Boarding-School  at  Carlsbourg,  under  the  management  of 
the  Christian  Brethren,  made  a  more  comprehensive  exhibition, 
various  aids  for  teaching,  and  specimens  by  the  pupils,  having  been 
so  arranged  as  to  give  a  very  good  insight  into  the  working  of  the 
institution.  The  aids  for  teaching  descriptive  geometry,  executed 
by  J.  J.  Piron,  the  director  of  the  school,  formed  the  most  promi- 
nent feature  of  this  exhibition.  The  course  of  instruction  was 
systematically  illustrated  by  means  of  large  wall-charts ;  while 
exceedingly  well-executed  models  in  cardboard,  showing  the  con- 
struction-lines, and  accompanied  by  their  projections,  gave  a  still 
clearer  idea  of  it.  These  models  were  among  the  simplest,  and  at 
the  same  time  the  most  practical  for  their  purpose,  that  were  to  be 
seen  in  the  Exhibition  ;  besides  their  convenience  and  their  cheap- 
ness, the}r  offer  an  advantage  over  other  models,  as  the  three 
planes  are  movable,  so  that,  by  laying  them  down,  a  very  clear 
insight  can  be  given  into  the  representation  of  the  projection.  It 
is  said  that  these  models  are  to  be  published  by  the  government, 
which  would  certainly  be  in  the  interest  of  education. 

The  specimens  by  the  pupils  of  the  school  were  especially  praise- 
worth}'  in  linear  drawing  ;  and  it  appears  that  descriptive  geometry 
is  cultivated  in  the  institution,  in  preference  to  other  subjects. 

Of  other  aids  for  teaching,  we  must  mention  Stroesser's  wire- 
models  for  instruction  in  stereometry,  trigonometry,  and  crystal- 
lography. Their  practical  character  is  everywhere  known,  and 
they  have  frequently  been  favorably  spoken  of  by  specialists,  even 
in  the  papers.  In  the  mathematical  bodies,  the  distinction  which 
is  marked  by  color  between  the  ground-form,  and  the  transforma- 
tion of  the  figure,  is  very  instructive,  and  aids  the  understanding 
materially.  For  class-instruction,  however,  they  appear  to  be 
too  small.  Their  maker  also  exhibited  models  of  wood,  and 
apparatus  for  perspective. 

F.  Licot,  Director  of  the  Drawing  and  Modelling  School  at 
Nivelles,  submitted  a  "  Course  of  Linear  Drawing  by  Sight,  Based 
on  Geometry,"  in  which  the  elements  of  form  are  practiced  in  con- 
junction with  freehand  drawing,  which  is  followed  up  by  projec- 
tion and  ornament-drawing.  The  author  continues  to  combine  the 
elements  of  freehand  with  those  of  linear  drawing,  where  in 
reality  the  division  already  sets  in  of  itself,  and  in  his  work  gives 


144  ART  EDUCATION. 

a  medley  of  copies  in  both  branches,  which,  we  take  it,  cannot  be 
of  advantage  to  either  subject.  For  the  study  of  perspective,  F. 
Bossuet's  "  Summary  of  a  Treatise  on  Linear  Perspective,"  must 
be  noted  as  an  excellent  little  work,  as  far  as  systematic  arrange- 
ment and  perspicuity  of  the  drawings  is  concerned. 

Glancing  finally  at  the  contiguous  exhibition  of  the  Belgian 
booksellers,  we  shall  have  to  mention  the  artistic,  archaeological, 
and  art-industrial  publications  of  Ch.  Claesens  (Liege) ,  and  the 
interesting  work  by  C.  Colinet  and  Soran,  "  Collection  of  the  Re- 
mains of  our  National  Art  of  the  Eleventh  to  the  Sixteenth  Cen- 
turies," which  appears  in  Brussels,  in  parts. 


SWEDEN  AND  NORWAY. 

WHOEVER  visited  the  pleasant  rooms  of  the  Swedish  schoolhouse 
at  the  Exhibition  must  have  observed  that  very  great  attention  is 
paid  to  object- teaching  in  Sweden.  There  were  to  be  seen  picto- 
rial representations  for  natural  history,  characteristic  landscapes 
for  geography,  models  for  geometry,  &c.  ;  in  short,  each  subject  had 
its  objects  for  illustration,  as  far  as  possibility  would  permit.  The 
value  of  these  means  of  instruction  being  correctly  appreciated r 
drawing*  by  which  the  eye  must  be  taught  to  seer  has  also  been 
carefully  attended  to  ;  and  the  effort  to  carry  out  a  practical  system 
in  the  teaching  of  this  subject  was  apparent  even  in  the  wall- 
charts  which  had  been  hung  up  in  the  schoolroom  in  question* 

The  comparatively  poor  and  thinly  settled  country  possesses  no 
special  branches  of  industry  in  which  form  plays-  an  important 
part.  With  the  exception  of  the  old  faience  and  porcelain  manu- 
factories (represented  at  the  Exhibition  by  Gustavsberg  and  by 
Borstrand) ,  the  industries  are  mainly  occupied  in  providing  for  the 
necessities  of  the  country  itself,  which,  as  far  as  articles  of  luxury 
are  concerned,  have  kept  within  such  moderate  bounds,  that  up 
to  the  present  a  national  character  in  forms  could  not  develop 
itself.  But  the  efforts  of  the  government  to  elevate  the  education 
of  the  people  by  means-  of  schools-,  even  in  the  remotest  districts, 
are  very  commendable  ;  and  a  clear  picture  of  the  present  condition 
of  the  People's  and  Middle  Schools  was  given  in  two  reports,  which 
had  been  written  expressly  for  the  Exhibition.  It  must  also  be 
mentioned  with  praise,  that  the  government  had  taken  care  to  sup- 
pl}'  all  the  necessary  verbal  information,  while  it  was  unfortunately 
impossible  for  the  reporter  to  obtain  such  information  from  other, 
even  very  important  states,,  in  spite  of  persistent  efforts. 

Geometry  and  linear  drawing  begin,  in  the  People's  School ;  but 
10  143 


146  ART  EDUCATION. 

very  naturally  the  subject  cannot  be  introduced  everywhere,  since, 
among  the  7,528  educational  institutions,  there  are  1,145  travelling 
schools,  which  change  their  locality  from  two  to  four  times  a  }'ear, 
so  as  to  provide  the  children  of  the  poorer  districts  of  the  North 
with  at  least  the  most  important  parts  of  elementary  education  ;  in 
the  stationary  schools  the  subject  is  frequently  well  taken  care  of. 

Conformably  to  the  age  of  the  pupils,  geometry  is  limited  to  the 
properties  of  geometrical  figures,  their  measurement  and  computa- 
tion. Freehand  drawing,  which  was  introduced  only  quite  lately 
into  the  more  prominent  institutions,  is  mostly  practiced  from  the 
wall-charts  by  G.  Salomann,  or  those  by  Sandberg.  They  offer 
simple  geometrical  forms,  which  are  quite  practical.  In  some  of 
the  schools  (and  this  is  true  more  especially  of  Stockholm) ,  where 
drawing  had  probably  been  practiced  before,  this  good  method  un- 
fortunately has  not  yet  been  introduced,  and  "  pictures"  were 
again  to  be  seen  among  the  specimens,  copied  from  Berlin  and  bad 
Parisian  examples,  which  may  amuse  the  amateur,  but  which  are 
absolutely  to  be  condemned  for  rational  instruction  in  drawing. 
Very  good  specimens  were  exhibited  by  the  St.  Claras  School 
(Stockholm)  ;  the  St.  Nicolai  School  also  exhibited  large  drawings 
of  good  ornaments  outlined  with  the  brush  ;  but  the  figure-drawing 
from  wall-charts  was  again  fatal,  nor  can  we  agree  with  linear 
drawing  as  practiced  at  this  institution.  The  schools  St.  Maria, 
St.  Nicolai,  and  St.  Katharina  furthermore  exhibited  wall-charts 
for  instruction  in  natural  philosophy  and  natural  history,  executed 
by  the  scholars,  which  maybe  very  practical  for  these  subjects,  but 
must  certainly  be  an}'  thing  but  advantageous  to  drawing.  Very 
satisfactory  results  in  ornament  and  in  geometry  were  shown  by 
the  Deaf-Mute  Institution  (Manilla-Institute)  of  Stockholm. 

In  the  Swedish  Middle  Schools,  which  are  divided  into  real  and 
humanistic,  drawing  is  compulsory  in  the  real,  and  in  the  four 
lower  classes  of  the  humanistic  division ;  in  the  upper  classes 
it  is  elective.  So  far,  only  two  hours  each  week  are  set  apart 
for  drawing  by  the  plan  of  instruction,  which  would  appear  to  be 
insufficient,  at  least  in  the  real  division.  Instruction  in  drawing  is 
given  by  special  teachers,  but  they  are  still  classed  among  what 
are  called  "  practice  teachers,"  and  are  subordinated  in  position 
to  the  lectors,  adjuncts,  and  fellows. 


SWEDEN  AND  NORWAY.  147 

Excellent  specimens  by  pupils  of  this  class  of  schools  were 
exhibited  by  Gothenburg.1  In  the  Higher  Middle  Schools  of  this 
city,  drawing  begins  with  Salomann's  wall-charts,  and  then  passes 
on  to  drawing  from  geometrical  solids,  with  very  good  success ; 
this  is  followed  up  by  figure  and  ornament  drawing,  mostly  from 
French  copies.  In  spite  of  the  many  pedagogical  defects  of  these 
originals,  there  were  specimens  among  the  drawings  of  very  superior 
execution.  The  whole  Exhibition,  perhaps,  had  no  copies  to  show 
in  two  crayons  from  Julien's  heads,  which  were  executed  as  neatly 
as  these ;  the  drawings  from  casts  (the  Stuttgart  collection) ,  and 
other  studies  from  plastic  objects,  gave  evidence  of  a  proper  under- 
standing of  the  forms ;  besides  these  there  were  also  found  land- 
scapes after  Calame  and  other  good  masters.  Linear  drawing  is 
limited  to  the  most  necessary  elements  of  planimetry  and  stere- 
ometry. The  Middle  School  at  Oerebro  was  also  represented  by 
similarly  good  results  in  freehand  drawing. 

The  best,  however,  which  had  been  submitted  by  Sweden  in  the 
way  of  drawings,  came  from  the  School  of  the  Industrial  Society 
at  Gothenburg.  This  institution  was  founded  in  1848  by  an 
association  of  manufacturers,  for  the  purpose  of  providing  an 
opportunity  for  the  working-men  in  the  various  trades  to  improve 
themselves  in  the  most  necessary  technical  and  artistic  branches. 
The  means  not  being  sufficient  for  a  more  efficacious  development 
of  the  school,  in  accordance  with  the  demand  of  the  times,  and  as 
the  necessity  for  the  school  was  recognized  on  all  sides,  the  com- 
mune interested  itself  in  it  in  1865,  and  enlarged  its  sphere  in  all 
directions.  The  school  is  still  immediately  under  the  control  of 
the  Industrial  Society,  which  always  elects  its  director.  The  in- 
struction is  general,  and  the  term  lasts  from  Sept.  15  to  the  month 
of  May  following.  In  drawing,  the  following  branches  are  taught : 
freehand  drawing,  decorative  painting,  perspective,  linear  draw- 
ing (geometry),  machine  drawing,  architectural  drawing,  and 
modelling. 

Instruction  in  freehand  drawing  is  given  in  four  classes,  each 
class  corresponding  to  the  capacities  of  its  pupils,  and  each  taught 
by  a  separate  teacher ;  in  case  of  overcrowding,  the  classes  are 

l  In  the  attic  of  the  schoolhouse. 


148  ART  EDUCATION. 

divided  into  parallel  sections.  Drawing-materials  are  furnished 
to  the  pupils  free  of  charge.  The  attendance  rose  from  twenty 
pupils  in  1850  to  five  hundred  and  eight  at  present,  which  is  suffi- 
cient evidence  of  the  prosperity  of  the  school.  At  the  yearly 
exhibitions,  premiums  are  awarded  for  the  best  drawings. 

The  specimens  shown  at  Vienna  were  taken  from  the  following 
classes  :  Class  I.  Elements  of  freehand  drawing  from  Salomann's 
wall-charts,  very  neat  in  execution ;  Class  II.  Continuation  of 
outline  ornament  and  exemplary  practice  in  object  drawing; 
Classes  III.  and  IV.  Drawing  with  various  materials,  partly 
from  good  copies,  partly  from  more  complicated  models.  There 
were  ornaments  from  casts  (mostly  Renaissance)  among  the 
drawings,  of  brilliant  execution,  and  also  well-executed  heads 
and  figures  (from  the  antique) . 

The  section  for  decorative  painting  exhibited  some  specimens 
(in  body  colors) ,  the  bulk  of  which  were  in  French  taste. 

Linear  drawing  is  practiced  very  systematically  and  thoroughly. 
The  elements  of  geometry  are  succeeded  by  projection,  with 
immediate  application  to  practical  cases ;  this  is  followed  up  by 
the  construction  of  shadows  and  of  perspective,  in  which  latter 
the  various  methods  in  use  are  brought  to  the  knowledge  of  the 
pupils. 

Drawing  for  specialties  is  principally  practiced  in  architecture 
and  in  machine-building,  and  many  very  excellent  specimens  were 
exhibited  in  both  branches. 

It  was  only  to  be  regretted  that  the  space  allotted  to  the  speci- 
mens of  this  institution  was  so  cramped,  as  to  make  it  difficult  to 
survey  them  as  a  whole.  It  is  evident,  however,  that  correct 
methods  are  employed  in  all  the  branches,  and  the  results  of 
instruction,  as  far  as  submitted,  deserved  undivided  praise. 

Norway  did  not  exhibit  in  the  educational  group  ;  and  in  indus- 
try it  was  also  represented  only  by  its  national  productions,  which 
served  merely  to  show  the  traditional  native  taste.  The  carvings 
did  not  exhibit  any  special  peculiarities  of  form,  nor  was  there 
any  thing  to  be  seen  in  them  of  a  peculiar  style  of  ornament. 
The  laces,  embroideries-,  and  textile  fabrics  showed  more  indi- 
viduality in  design,  certain  geometrical  forms  prevailing  in  the 
latter,  while  the  colors  were  selected  not  without  taste.  The 
Norwegian  jewelry  is  uncouth  and  inartistic.  • 


SWEDEN  AND  NORWAY.  149 

Some  good  things,  were,  however,  found  in  the  Art  Hall ;  but 

these  must  not  be  credited  to  art  education  in  the  country  itself, 

but  to  the  German  Academies, -as  most  of  the  Norwegian  artists 
reside  in  Dusseldorf,  Carlsruhe,  Munich,  &c. 


DENMARK. 

THE  exhibition  of  this  country  in  Group  XXVI.  was  likewise 
meagre.  Of  drawings  there  were  only  submitted  some  speci- 
mens from  the 'People's  Schools  of  Copenhagen:  they  consisted 
of  projections  applied  to  art-industrial  objects,  and  of  outline 
ornaments,  partly  from  copies  and  partly  from  casts,  mostly 
from  the  antique.  It  seems  as  though  the  spirit  of  Thorwaldsen 
had  penetrated  even  into  the  schoolrooms ;  we  meet  it  everywhere 
in  industry,  and  his  drawings  were  found  charmingly  adapted  to 
Greek  vases,  vessels,  &c.,  which  latter  are  perhaps  imitated 
nowhere  as  faithfully  as  in  Copenhagen.  The  Grand-Master  of 
sculpture  himself  was  represented  at  the  Exhibition  by  successful 
small  copies  of  his  works  in  biscuit-ware  (by  Jorgensen  of  Copen- 
hagen) ;  but  his  memory  was  most  vividly  recalled  by  Jerichau's 
"  Wedding  of  Alexander  and  Roxane,"  in  the  Art  Exhibition. 
Denmark  owes  its  refined  taste  in  industry  simply  to  the  impulse 
given  by  its  great  artist ;  and  it  is  pleasant  to  see  how  understand- 
ing^ the  forms  are  always  adapted  to  the  material. 

Brinkoff  (Copenhagen),  exhibited  drawings  of  furniture,  in 
charming  style,  the  simple,  noble  Renaissance  forms  of  which  were 
practical  withal.  Christesen's  gold  and  silver  ware  showed  the 
most  refined  feeling  in  their  rhythmical  outlines. 

150 


SPAIN  AND  PORTUGAL. 

IN  no  country,  aside  from  Italy,  does  the  past  of  art-industry 
offer  so  much  that  is  of  interest  as  in  Spain.  Arabian-Moorish 
art  brought  forth  its  fairest  flowers  upon  this  soil ;  and  quite  a 
number  of  new  industries  sprang  up  when,  after  the  expulsion  of 
the  Moorish  princes,  the  new  continent  poured  its  wealth  into  the 
country.  It  was  then  that  cities  like  Cordova,  Toledo,  Madrid, 
enjoyed  a  world- wide  reputation  for  their  special  products.  And 
with  the  names  of  a  Murillo,  a  Velasquez,  and  others,  Spanish  art 
also  rose  to  a  height  which  attracted  the  e}-es  of  the  whole  world. 
Yet  all  this  has  passed  away,  and  hardly  any  thing  is  left  of  it  but 
the  memory. 

In  Italy  the  ancient  technical  knowledge  in  certain  branches  of 
art-industiy  has  been  handed  down  to  our  own  day  ;  and  the  old 
forms  still  live  in  the  drawing-schools,  and  through  the  schools  in 
industry.  But  in  Spain  we  would  look  for  these  elements  in  vain. 
The  political  storms  which  have  incessantly  blown  over  the  coun- 
try, and  which  are  still  hindering  all  development  by  their  baleful 
influence,  have  long  ago  torn  the  threads  reaching  downwards 
from  the  glorious  past ;  and  whatever  of  industry  Spain  has  to 
offer  at  present,  consists  mainly  in  the  imitation  of  ancient  fai- 
ences and  damaskeened  work.  On  the  whole,  however,  French 
taste  is  dominant. 

Any  one  examining  the  textile  fabrics  of  Barcelona  and  of 
Valencia  at  the  Exhibition  must  have  noticed  that  the  reformatory 
influences  were  hardly  perceptible  in  them,  except  occasionally, 
perhaps,  in  the  products  of  the  latter  city ;  generally  speaking, 
the  most  unsystematic  caprice  rules  supreme  in  color  as  well  as 
in  form. 

The    exhibition  of  Group  XXVI.  -had  been  housed  on  the 

151 


152  ART  EDUCATION. 

second  floor  of  the  Spanish  pavilion  in  the  first  zone ;  and,  to 
judge  from  the  catalogue,  contained  much  that  was  interesting 
and  important,  as  characterizing  the  present  situation.  But  it 
was  impossible  for  the  reporter  to  obtain  any  intelligence  concern- 
ing the  material  on  exhibition;  for  there  were  neither  numbers 
upon  the  objects,  which  would  have  made  it  possible  to  find 
them  in  the  catalogue,  nor  were  the  representatives  at  the  Exhibi- 
tion able  to  give  any  information  whatever. 

Of  freehand  drawings  there  were  some  framed  specimens,  away 
up  on  the  walls,— heads  after  Julien,  pretty  bad  in  execution, 
and  French  ornaments  in  crayon,  a  few  also  in  India  ink.  Some 
well-drawn  heads  in  charcoal,  from  casts,  were  exhibited  in  a 
closed  case  ;  whence  they  came  no  one  could  tell.  There  were 
also  linear  drawings  in  bound  volumes,  from  the  "  Central  Normal 
School"  of  Madrid,  embracing  the  knowledge  of  form,  geomet- 
rical ornaments,  architectural  details,  and  parts  of  machinery. 

In  view  of  the  absence  of  art-industries  of  any  importance,  it 
is  quite  natural  that  artistic  drawing  should  receive  but  little  care 
in  Spain,  while  more  stress  is  laid  upon  technical  drawing,  which 
finds  a  rich  field  in  the  necessary  construction  of  railroads,  ports, 
strategical  works,  &c. 

In  consequence  of  this  state  of  affairs,  all  the  works  on 
drawing  which  were  exhibited  showed  a  preponderance  of  the 
technical  element.  We  must  especially  mention  M.  Borell's 
"  Theoretical  and  Practical  Treatise  on  Design,"  as  applied  to  the 
arts  and  industries,  which  excelled  in  superiority  of  execution 
(copper  plates) ,  and  in  its  practical  arrangement  in  progressive 
stages.  Geometry,  projections,  geometrical  ornament  applied  to 
architecture,  construction  of  shadows,  &c.,  are  treated  in  the  first 
parts,  and  in  freehand  drawing  the  ornament  is  developed  from  its 
geometrical  ground  forms,  the  acanthus-leaf  being  taken  as  a  basis. 
Linear  drawing  is  then  continued  with  architectural  objects,  Greek, 
Roman,  and  Gothic  monuments  being  principally  taken  as  ex- 
amples. The  text,  with  very  beautifully-executed  woodcuts, 
explains  the  historical  development  of  the  styles,  and,  with  the 
limitations  alluded  to,  may  be  looked  upon  as  a  history  of 
architecture. 

Borell  is  professor  of  drawing  at  the  Institute  of  San  Isicloro, 


SPAIN  AND  PORTUGAL.  153 

in  Madrid,  and  is  still  engaged  in  the  completion  of  his  work,  of 
which  only  six  parts  have  so  far  appeared. 

We  must  also  mention  N.  Valde's  "  Manual  for  the  Engineer 
and  the  Architect,"  and  Artemis  Perez'  "  Academy  of  Artil- 
lery"  (Madrid,  1868),  as  belonging  to  the  more  important  works 
on  constructive  drawing,  and  more  especially  on  machine  drawing. 

For  topographical  and  map  drawing  an  excellent  guide  is 
offered  in  the  beautifully  gotten  up  work,  ' '  Topographical  Draw- 
ing," by  M.  Rindavaets.  Of  the  higher  technical  schools  there 
were  only  to  be  seen  specimens  by  the  pupils  of  the  "  School 
of  Industrial  Engineers ' '  at  Barcelona.  They  consisted  almost 
exclusively  of  machine  drawings,  and  may  be  called  superior  in 
every  respect. 

A  teacher  at  the  same  institution,  D.  Joaquin  Mata,  also 
exhibited  a  work  entitled  "Course  of  Industrial  Drawing,"  in 
which  geometry  and  its  application  to  architecture  and  machine- 
building  is  very  beautifully  treated ;  the  part  on  freehand  drawing 
is  less  commendable,  as  it  is  merely  made  up  of  copies  of  older 
French  originals. 

Whatever  else  there  was  of  linear  drawing,  was  of  older  date 
and  of  but  little  importance,  so  that  it  may  properly  be  ignored 
here. 

PORTUGAL.  —  Little  Portugal  had  taken  much  better  care  than 
Spain  to  represent  her  educational  affairs  at  the  Exhibition,  although 
the  reproach  must  again  be  repeated,  that  ver}-  insufficient  provis- 
ion had  been  made  to  supply  the  necessary  information  concern- 
ing the  objects  exhibited,  and  that  the  reporter  was  therefore 
compelled  to  make  many  a  journey  in  vain. 

Portugal  had  a  schoolhouse  at  the  Exhibition ;  and  in  it  there 
were  to  be  seen  the  usual  aids  for  teaching,  together  with  various 
specimens  by  the  pupils.  The  impression  made  by  the  whole  was 
satisfactory;  but  the  statistical  and  legal  details  were  wanting, 
which  would  have  enabled  a  closer  examination,  and  which  had 
elsewhere  been  furnished  in  the  shape  of  tables  or  pamphlets. 
The  reporter  could  only  glean  some  of  the  more  important  points 
relating  to  the  educational  system  of  Portugal  from  the  4 '  Gazeta 
Pedagogica"  of  Lisbon,  which  was  on  exhibition  among  other 


154  ART  EDUCATION. 

things ;  and  these  points,  as  far  as  they  relate  to  drawing,  shall 
briefly  be  mentioned  here. 

Portugal  is  aware  of  her  isolated  position,  and  knows  that  she 
cannot  play  an  independent  part  in  the  development  of  civilization, 
as  her  language  is  hardly  spoken  outside  of  her  limits,  and  the  most 
important  productions  of  literature  must  therefore  remain  foreign 
to  her  people.  But  she  is  doing  her  best  to  follow  in  the  wake  of 
progress,  and  is  endeavoring,  especially  by  means  of  her  schools, 
to  come  into  contact  with  the  cultured  nations  of  Central  Europe. 
It  is  very  natural  that  France  is  principally  looked  to  in  this 
respect.  French  is  therefore  compulsory  in  all  the  schools ;  and 
all  the  other  arrangements  are  also  very  generally  fashioned  after 
French  patterns. 

Industry  is  ruled  entirely  by  French  taste  ;  the  national  element 
is  so  simple  and  unimportant,  that  it  can  hardly  be  noticed.  The 
imitation  of  old  French  art-industries,  such  as  the  Palissy  faiences, 
ma}'  be  mentioned  as  a  specialt3r,  but  is  only  another  proof  of  the 
dependency  of  form  upon  France. 

Manier,  in  his  "  Map  of  Primary  Instruction  in  Europe,"  pub- 
lished in  Paris,  in  1867,  placed  Portugal  in  the  last  category,  and 
asserted  that  "  the  population  is  ignorant,  the  schools  are  few  and 
badly  attended.  One  pupil  only  is  counted  to  eighty-one  inhabit- 
ants." But  this  was  a  decided  error,  even  at  that  time,  as  in 
1864,  according  to  statistical  reports,  there  were  already  2,774 
schools,  with  99,256  pupils,  which  gives  one  pupil  to  every  fort}'- 
two  inhabitants.  Since  then,  in  spite  of  the  unfavorable  political 
condition,  nothing  has  been  neglected  to  elevate  the  education  of 
the  people,  and  to  diffuse  general  culture  especially  by  estab- 
lishing Lycea.  Portugal,  at  present,  has  a  Lyceum  in  each  of  its 
districts  (twenty-one  with  the  islands) ,  whose  directors  are  at  the 
same  time  inspectors  of  the  People's  Schools,  and  all  of  whom  are 
again  subordinated  to  a  Director  of  Public  Instruction.  Within 
this  organization  all  instruction  is  governed  by  uniform  principles. 
The  Teachers'  Normal  Schools  of  the  country  have  also  made 
considerable  advances  of  late. 

Drawing  is  taught  in  all  the  schools  ;  and  the  various  institutions 
were  represented  by  specimens  from  the  "Real  Casa  Pia,"  the 
"  National  Lyceum,"  and  the  "Normal  School,"  all  of  Lisbon. 


SPAIN  AND  PORTUGAL.  155 

But  it  was  unfortunately  apparent  from  the  freehand  drawings, 
that  the  methods  pursued  are  not  the  most  suitable,  although  the 
intentions  are  the  best.  Above  all,  there  is  a  want  of  good  copies. 
At  the  "  Real  Casa  Pia  "  elementary  drawing  is  taught  according 
to  the  "Elementary  Course  of  Design,"  by  Prof.  A.  J.  Picard,  in 
copy-books  divided  off  into  squares,  and  gotten  up  specially  for 
this  institution.  The  progression  in  this  course  might,  indeed,  be 
approved  of,  but  it  was  seldom  adhered  to  in  the  copy-books  on 
exhibition,  as  quite  a  variety  of  different  subjects  had  generally 
been  taken  up  too  rapidly  in  succession,  and  crayon  and  pen  had 
been  employed  too  early.  Following  Picard 's  course,  drawing  is 
continued  from  French  ornaments  with  very  mediocre  results. 
The  exercises  in  drawing  from  nature  were  very  scanty. 

Linear  drawing  fares  far  better  at  the  institution ;  and  better 
principles  were  discernible  even  in  the  "  Relatorio  "  for  the  "  In- 
dustrial Course,"  which  had  been  submitted.  The  most  important 
propositions  of  plane  geometry  are  gone  through  with,  and  the 
pupils  then  draw  architectural  details,  columns,  &c.  These  are 
succeeded  by  projections  and  shadows,  very  thoroughly  treated, 
which  in  turn  are  followed  up  by  machine  and  architectural  draw- 
ings (mostly  from  the  French  "  Etudes  au  Lavis  ").  Among  the 
latter  class  especially,  there  were  to  be  seen  specimens  of  excel- 
lent execution. 

Specimens  of  an  incomparably  better  character  were  exhibited 
b\r  the  "  National  Lyceum,"  but  the  linear  drawings  were  again 
in  the  majorit}r.  The  very  excellent  works  by  F.  Motta,  drawing- 
teacher  at  the  Lyceum,  were  also  *6n  exhibition.  "  His  "  Com- 
pendium of  Linear  Design"  follows  the  plan  adopted  for  J. 
Picard' s  work.  Geometry  and  projection  are  systematically 
treated,  and  these  are  succeeded  b}-  practical  problems  in  architec- 
ture and  machine-building.  In  freehand  drawing  the  course  begins 
with  copy-books  ruled  4n  squares,  and  rises  from  geometrical  forms 
to  ornaments,  which  latter,  however,  are  not  based  upon  any  defi- 
nite style.  The  drawings  on  exhibition  showed  that  the  course  of 
instruction  is  correct  up  to  outline-ornament,  although  ugly  forms 
were  frequently  to  be  seen  among  them.  The  specimens  of  figure- 
drawing  were  deficient.  In  linear  drawing  there  were  some  very 
beautifully  executed  specimens  of  machinery.  Of  architecture 


156  ART  EDUCATION. 

nothing  of  any  importance  was  to  be  seen,  if  we  except  a  few  col- 
umns. 

The  "  Normal  School "  exhibited  some  drawings  of  outline-orna- 
ments (by  female, teachers)  from  bad  copies,  and  shaded  ornaments 
in  cra}ron,  hard  in  execution,  after  Bilordeaux,  Julien,  &c.  With 
such  examples  it  is  impossible  to  educate  taste.  The  same  is  true 
of  the  specimens  from  the  "  Pensionat  de  Bienfaisance  pour  Jeunes 
Filles  "  and  the  "  Escola  Regia  das  Mercieiras."  The  choice  of 
examples  in  the  latter  school  is  fitted  to  debase  rather  than  to  ele- 
vate taste. 

The  "  Association  Commercial,"  whose  seat  is  in  Porto,  and 
whose  labors  in  behalf  of  the  art-industry  of  the  country  are  quite 
meritorious,  exhibited  a  number  of  decorative  polj'chrome  orna- 
ments (in  plaster  and  wood) ,  which  were  very  successful  in  the 
imitation  of  Moorish  forms.  The  pamphlets  on  the  activity  of  the 
association  were  exhibited  in  the  Hall  of  Industry,  in  frames  under 
glass  ;  and  the  reporter  found  it  impossible  to  gain  access  to  them. 


AMERICA. 

ONE  of  our  most  prominent  art-scientists  gave  it  as  his  opinion, 
at  the  close  of  the  first  World's  Fair  held  in  London  in  1851,  that 
the  organization  of  art-instruction  on  the  plan  then  proposed  by 
England  would  be  easiest  of  achievement,  and  would  work  to 
best  advantage,  in  a  country  in  which  no  old  art-traditions  are  to 
be  overcome,  and  which  is  in  possession  of  the  freest  institutions, 
or,  in  other  words,  in  the  North- American  Free  States.1  This 
sentence  certainly  contains  a  profound  truth.  But  it  may  still  be 
questioned,  whether,  under  existing  circumstances,  an  undertak- 
ing looking  to  such  a  result  could  meet  with  success  for  the  pres- 
ent. As  long  as  America  is  in  her  development,  as  long  as  the 
material  aims  of  life  are  the  only  concern  of  her  people,  and  as 
long  as  all  the  energies  of  the  country  are  devoted  to  these  aims, 
there  can  be  no  thought  of  ideal  aspirations.  And,  whenever  any 
thing  of  the  kind  is  proposed,  the  attempt  is  limited  to  the  continua- 
tion of  traditions  brought  over  from  Europe.  But  these  traditions 
are  more  likely  to  wither,  than  to  flourish,  in  so  strange  an  atmos- 
phere. The  productions  of  America  in  art,  and  especially  in 
sculpture,  are  of  European  origin.  Industry  is  bent  upon  useful- 
ness, rather  than  upon  artistic  beauty  ;  and  individuality  of  taste  is 
as  yet  out  of  the  question.  The  leading  cities  of  Europe  will 
have  to  satisfy  the  wants  of  luxury  in  America  for  some  time  to 
come. 

Architecture  might  perhaps  be  expected  to  develop  an  independ- 
ent character  before  any  of  the  other  arts ;  but  even  in  this  de- 
partment only  European  motives  are  to  be  seen  ;  and,  as  there  is  no 
lack  of  means,  these  motives  are  frequently  used  as  a  pompous 
decoration  of  the  most  daring  constructions.  The  photographs 

1  The  passage  here  alluded  to  will  be  found  in  Seniper's  "Propositions." 
(See  note,  p.  35.)— •  Transl. 

157 


158  ART  EDUCATION. 

from  Chicago,  Cincinnati,  and  Philadelphia  furnished  characteristic 
specimens. 

Taste  can  only  be  educated  by  means  of  well-organized  muse- 
ums and  thorough  instruction  in  art  in  the  schools ;  but  in  both 
these  particulars  America  is  still  upon  the  lowest  stage.  Speak- 
ing of  schools  especially,  it  must  indeed  be  conceded  that  their 
importance  is  everywhere  fully  recognized,  and  that  the  amplest 
means  are  at  the  command  of  education.  Specialists  awarded 
high  praise  to  the  American  schoolhouse  at  the  Exhibition ;  the 
aids  for  teaching  in  the  United  States  may  be  called  models  of 
their  kind  :  but  this  is  not  all.  The  first  condition  in  education  is 
the  teacher,  and  there  is  a  want  of  these  everywhere  in  America ; 
not  to  speak  of  the  fact,  that  there  is  as  yet  no  system  in  relation 
to  the  categories  of  schools,"  and  that  each  State,  or  perhaps  even 
each  city,  has  a  different  arrangement,  which  fact  is  also  detrimental 
to  a  healthy  development  of  educational  matters.  It  can  readily  be 
perceived,  therefore,  wiry  it  has  been  impossible  so  far  to  establish 
High  Schools  (Universities)  of  the  character  of  those  in  Europe. 

But,  in  spite  of  these  less  favorable  auspices,  numerous  demands 
have  been  made,  especially  of  late,  for  the  introduction  of  draw- 
ing into  the  schools,  and  with  the  same  aims  which  are  now 
recognized  in  Europe.  In  the  more  prominent  cities,  drawing  is 
already  practiced,  and  the  results  were  to  be  seen  at  the  World's 
Fair.  It  was  hardly  to  be  expected,  in  view  of  the  circumstances 
just  indicated,  that  these  results  should  be  of  much  importance, 
even  if  the  originals  and  the  method  in  use  wrere  the  best ;  but  it  is 
in  these  particulars  more  especially  that  nearly  every  thing  is  still 
left  to  be  desired.  Thus  drawing  is  taught  in  many  schools  b}' 
teachers  who  have  no  special  knowledge  of  the  subject  themselves, 
while  the  Berlin  copies  (by  Hermes)  are  used  as  examples. 
Now  and  then  special  drawing-teachers  are  indeed  employed  in 
some  of  the  larger  cities ;  but  how  can  rational  instruction  be 
looked  for,  when  most  of  these  teachers  are  in  charge  of  far  too 
great  a  number  of  pupils?  A  report  from  Toledo  (Ohio),  for 
instance,  states  that  one  general  teacher  of  drawing  is  charged 
with  the  care  of  seventy-four  school-rooms !  The  method  em- 
ployed could  not  be  learned  from  the  specimens  exhibited  by  these 
schools. 


AMERICA.  159 

Ike  same  is  true  of  the  Grammar  Schools  of  New  York,  in 
which  only  landscapes,  animals,  flowers,  &c.,  are  drawn.  The 
attempt  to  delineate  geometrical  bodies  from  nature  is  made  only 
occasionally,  and,  in  view  of  the  inefficient  preparation  of  the 
pupils,  showed  but  little  success.  Some  of  the  higher  schools  in 
New  York  exhibited  framed  drawings  (by  pupils  of  from  twelve 
to  fifteen  years)  of  vessels,  utensils,  &c.,  as  well  as  copies  of 
heads,  landscapes,  and  animals  (after  Hermes  and  Julien),  which 
were  of  somewhat  better  execution ;  but  these  specimens  were 
treated  rather  as  "pictures,"  than  as  illustrations  of  the  course 
of  instruction.  A  number  of  ornaments  (from  Bauer's  exam- 
ples), were  so  evenly  copied  that  it  appeared  doubtful  whether 
the  different  names  with  which  the  drawings  were  signed  repre- 
sented also  different  hands.  In  Chicago  it  is  the  same ;  map- 
drawing  is  carried  on  extensively  here,  but  the  main  stress  appears 
to  be  laid  upon  the  colored  borders  surrounding  the  oceans.  The 
regulations  for  drawing-instruction  in  this  city  (paragraph  six- 
teen) emphasize  only  the  importance  and  the  value  of  the  subject 
in  its  relation  to  the  various  branches  of  industry,  but  contain  no 
definite  programme  for  the  several  stages  of  instruction. 

The  Common  Schools  of  Cincinnati  exhibited  the  work  of  their 
scholars  in  truly  magnificent  bindings,  one  subject  having  been 
drawn  by  the  whole  class,  so  that  the  same  volume  frequently 
showed  the  same  figure  fifty  to  sixty  times.1  The  drawings  con- 
sisted mostly  of  small  geometrical  figures,  stars,  &c.,  executed 
tolerably  evenly,  and  there  was  at  least  a  certain  principle  in 
them.  Among  the  work  of  the  Teachers',  Normal,  and  High 
Schools,  on  the  contrary,  sins  against  every  thing  like  good  taste 
were  to  be  met  with,  that  made  one's  hair  stand  on  end. 

As  aids  for  instruction  in  drawing,  Spencer's  Drawing-books 
were  exhibited  in  the  schoolhouse,  the  subjects  being  represented 
on  the  left  half  of  the  paper,  while  the  right  is  left  blank  for  the 
C(W  by  the  pupil.  The  various  stages  proceed  tolerably  system- 
atically  from  simple  geometrical  forms  to  the  representation  of 
vessels,  utensils,  &c. 

To  judge  from  the  specimens  exhibited,  drawing  is  best  taught 

1  This  had  been  doiie  by  order  of  the  authorities. 


160  ART  EDUCATION. 

in  Boston,  and  in  Massachusetts  generally.1  In  most  of  «the 
schools,  u  The  Drawing-Book  of  Standard  Reproductions  and 
Original  Designs  for  Public  Schools,"  by  Walter  Smith,  has  been 
introduced.2  The  work  recommends  itself,  especially  in  its  first 
parts  for  elementary  instruction,  advancing  from  a  geometrical 
basis  to  simple  ornaments  ;  in  the  second  part,  a  continuation  of  the 
ornament,  there  is  a  want  of  freshness  in  the  treatment,  and  of  defi- 
nite style  in  the  forms.  This  is  followed  up  by  heads,  animals, 
flowers,  and  even  whole  human  figures,  arranged  rather  arbitrarily, 
and  the  whole  executed  in  dry,  cold  outlines  in  pen-manner. 
Drawing  in  all  the  Public  Schools  is  practiced  according  to  this 
system,  and  the  first  exercises  are  generally  executed  upon  slates. 
Further  on  studies  are  also  made  from  plastic  models,  and  the 
specimens  exhibited  showed  very  good  results.  Stereometric 
bodies,  as  well  as  vessels,  vases,  &c.,  are  used  for  this  purpose.8 

"Picture-making"  is  again  cultivated  only  in  the  Girls' 
Schools,  in  which  the  drawing-copies  of  Julien  and  of  Hermes  are 
exclusively  in  use. 

Of  the  "  Drawing  Classes  "  there  were  drawings  (from  Smith's 
copies) ,  which  showed  but  moderate  results ;  the  work  of  the 
"Free  Industrial  Drawing  Classes"  of  the  State  of  Massachu- 
setts, on  the  contrary,  deserve  full  praise  ;  there  were  to  be  found 
among  them  neatly  executed  heads  (from  casts,  in  two  crayons) 
and  good  ornaments. 

1  The  drawings  sent  from  the  Boston  schools  to  Vienna  exhibited  but  the 
first  elementary  fruits  of  Prof.  Walter  Smith's  instruction  to  the  Boston  teach- 
ers.   His  text-books,  containing  examples  for  the  use  of  pupils  in  the  public 
schools,  had  not  then  been  prepared,  and  consequently  the  instruction  had  to 
be  given  by  the  regular  teachers  entirely  from  the  blackboard.     Since  the 
introduction  of  Prof.  Smith's  text-books  into  the  schools,  a  great  advance  has 
taken  place  in  all  grades.  —  Transl 

2  The  author  is  in  error  in  supposing  that  Prof.  Smith's  "Drawing  Book  of 
Standard  Reproductions  and  Original  Designs  "  had  been  extensively  intro- 
duced, or  was  intended  for  public  schools  generally.    This  work  was  only 
designed  to  furnish  examples  for  first  practice  in  High  Schools,  Evening 
Classes,  &c. ;  and  in  the  absence  of  all  suitable  copies  with  which  to  begin 
drawing  in  such  schools  and  classes,  Prof.  Smith  reproduced  several  of  the 
standard  English  examples  of  outline  copies,  in  connection  with  some  designs 
of  his  own,  to  meet  the  emergency.  —  Transl. 

8  The  models  were  also  exhibited. 


AMERICA.  161 

The  specimens  having  special  reference  to  art-instruction,  which 
were  exhibited  by  other  countries,  were  too  unimportant  and  in- 
significant to  make  it  necessary  for  the  reporter  to  mention  them  in 
detail.  The  badly  drawn  (French)  flowers,  and  some  heads  from 
Berlin  copies,  exhibited  by  a  school  in  Athens  as  evidences  of 
modern  art-instruction  in  Greece,  the  landscapes  (Calame)  from 
Constantinople,  the  faulty  copies  of  heads  (after  Julien)  sent  b}r 
the  Technical  School  at  Cairo,  only  served  to  make  evident  the 
fact  that  the  education  of  taste  is  quite  neglected  in  these  parts 
of  the  world. 

The  eye  was  especially  pained  by  seeing  these  weakly  producr 
tions  in  the  Greek  section,  directly  alongside  of  the  classical  frag- 
ments of  the  Acropolis.  These  venerable  remnants  of  art  at  the 
.World's  Fair,  surrounded  by  the  modern  efforts  and  struggles, 
which  manifest  themselves  in  all  departments  of  science  and  of 
art,  were  a  sad  illustration  of  the  vanity  of  earthly  glory.  But 
their  immortal  beauty  made  them  capable  at  the  same  time  of  serv- 
ing as  noble  examples,  continually  admonishing  us  TO  STRIVE  FOB 

THE   HIGHEST  IN   ALL  THINGS. 


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